112 of the Psychology glossary’s terms, each with the part of the syllabus where you first meet it.
A research design that tests whether one gene, chosen in advance because of its biological role, is associated with a trait or disorder; many such findings have failed to replicate.
Sharing good news with another person; how the listener responds, especially with active and constructive enthusiasm, affects well-being and the quality of the relationship.
The proposal that people raised among rectangular buildings learn to read angles in drawings as three-dimensional corners, which makes them more susceptible to illusions such as the Müller-Lyer illusion.
A detailed, usually long-term investigation of a single individual, group, event or community, using several methods such as interviews, observations and records.
A relationship in which a change in one variable produces a change in another; establishing it requires that the two covary, that the cause comes first, and that alternative explanations are ruled out.
The component of the working memory model that directs attention, coordinates the other components and switches between tasks; it has limited capacity and stores no information itself.
The thin, folded outer layer of grey matter covering the two cerebral hemispheres, responsible for perception, language, memory, thinking and voluntary movement.
One of the two halves of the cerebrum, left and right, joined by the corpus callosum; each mainly controls and receives sensation from the opposite side of the body.
A concept referring to alteration in behaviour, cognition, emotion or biology over time, through maturation, experience, intervention or chance, and to the use of psychological knowledge to bring about and evaluate such alteration.
A substance released by one cell that carries a signal to other cells by binding to their receptors; the main types are neurotransmitters and hormones.
A strategy of grouping separate items into larger meaningful units, so that more information can be held within the limited capacity of short-term memory.
A small-scale research study carried out by a class, led by the teacher or by students under supervision, to experience a research method at first hand within one of the course’s contexts.
A form of learning in which a neutral stimulus, repeatedly paired with a stimulus that already triggers a reflexive response, comes to trigger a similar response on its own.
A question with a fixed set of possible answers, such as yes/no, multiple choice or a rating scale, which produces quantitative data.
The ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy setting while still noticing personally important information, such as one’s own name, from an unattended conversation.
In qualitative analysis, the process of attaching short labels (codes) to segments of data that capture a feature relevant to the research question, so that similar segments can be collected and compared.
The square of the correlation coefficient (r²), which gives the proportion of the variation in one variable that is accounted for by its linear relationship with the other.
The process by which a person evaluates whether a situation is relevant and threatening (primary appraisal) and whether they have the resources to cope with it (secondary appraisal).
A perspective in psychology that explains behaviour through internal mental processes, such as perception, attention, memory and thinking, often treating the mind as an information-processing system.
The limited capacity for attention, working memory and self-control available at any moment, which can be reduced by preoccupying concerns such as worry about money.
A structured, time-limited psychological treatment in which client and therapist work together to identify and change the unhelpful thoughts and behaviours that maintain a disorder.
A systematic deviation from rationality or from an accepted norm in judgement, so that errors in thinking occur in a predictable direction rather than at random.
An unpleasant state of psychological tension that arises when a person holds two related cognitions, such as a belief and knowledge of their own behaviour, that are inconsistent, which motivates them to reduce the inconsistency.
A systematic error in reasoning, such as overgeneralisation or catastrophising, that leads a person to interpret events more negatively than the evidence justifies.
An error in a cognitive process such as memory, attention or perception, often caused by a lack of information or by the use of a heuristic.
A police interviewing technique based on memory research that helps witnesses retrieve more accurate detail by reinstating the context, reporting everything, and recalling in different orders and from different perspectives.
The amount of working memory resources required to carry out a task at a given time; when demands exceed the capacity available, cognitive overload impairs learning and performance.
A theory of learning which proposes that working memory has a limited capacity for new information, so instruction should avoid overloading it and direct its capacity towards building schemas in long-term memory.
The idea that people tend to minimise mental effort, relying on quick, intuitive System 1 judgements and engaging effortful System 2 thinking only when they must.
A simplified representation of a cognitive process, usually drawn as components linked by the flow of information, used to explain the process, generate testable hypotheses and make predictions.
Beck’s model in which a dormant negative self-schema, activated by a matching stressful event, produces cognitive distortions and negative thoughts about the self, world and future that cause depression.
The use of physical actions or external tools, such as notes, reminders, devices or the internet, to reduce the cognitive demands of a task, especially on memory.
Any mental function involved in acquiring, storing, interpreting, transforming or using information, such as attention, perception, memory, language, thinking and decision-making.
A three-item test devised by Frederick (2005) in which each question invites a fast, intuitive but wrong answer, used to measure the tendency to override intuition with reflection.
A technique in cognitive behavioural therapy in which a client identifies negative automatic thoughts, examines the evidence for and against them and replaces them with more balanced alternatives.
In Beck’s model, the pattern of negative thinking about the self, the world and the future that characterises depression.
A difference between age groups caused by the different historical conditions each generation grew up in, rather than by age or development itself.
A longitudinal study that follows a group of people who share a characteristic, such as being born in the same year and place, measuring them repeatedly over time.
The working relationship in cognitive behavioural therapy in which client and therapist act as a team, treating the client’s beliefs as hypotheses to be tested against evidence rather than as facts.
A theory of social loafing proposed by Karau and Williams (1993) stating that people work hard in groups only if they expect their effort to make a difference to an outcome they value.
A cultural orientation in which people see themselves mainly as members of close in-groups, such as the extended family, and give priority to group goals, loyalty and harmony over personal goals.
The use of a biological treatment, such as an antidepressant, together with a psychological treatment, such as cognitive behavioural therapy, for the same disorder.
A word or phrase at the start of an examination question, such as describe, explain or evaluate, that tells the student what to do with their knowledge and how much depth the answer needs.
The intention to continue a relationship and a feeling of psychological attachment to it; in the investment model, the variable that most directly predicts staying or leaving.
The principle that once people have committed themselves to a position or action, especially publicly, they feel pressure to behave consistently with that commitment.
A model of prejudice reduction proposing that recategorising members of two groups as one larger shared group reduces bias between them.
A relationship in which people give benefits in response to the other person's needs without keeping track of returns, unlike an exchange relationship, in which benefits are expected to be repaid.
In social exchange theory, the standard of outcome a person believes they deserve, based on past experience and expectations; the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) is the best outcome available elsewhere.
A change in behaviour in response to a direct request from another person who has no authority to give orders, often without any change in private attitudes.
A deliberate method of making a request that increases the chance that the person asked will agree, such as the foot-in-the-door or door-in-the-face technique.
A structural imaging technique that combines many X-ray images taken from different angles into cross-sectional pictures of the brain.
A broad, general idea that applies across all areas of psychology and is used to analyse and evaluate content and research; the course uses six: bias, causality, change, measurement, perspective and responsibility.
The Paper 1 Section C essay, worth 15 marks, in which the student evaluates or discusses an area of study from one context through one of the six concepts and argues to a reasoned conclusion.
The percentage of pairs of twins or relatives in which both members show a trait or disorder, given that one of them has it.
An emotional reaction, such as fear, acquired through classical conditioning, so that a previously neutral stimulus now triggers it.
The learned response triggered by a conditioned stimulus, usually similar to but weaker than the unconditioned response.
A formerly neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned response on its own.
A learned avoidance of a food or drink after its taste has been followed by illness, which can form after one pairing even when illness is delayed by hours.
A person who appears to be a participant or bystander but is working for the researcher and follows a script as part of the procedure.
A range of values around a sample estimate, calculated so that intervals made this way would contain the true population value a stated percentage of the time, usually 95%.
The duty to keep information about participants private and secure, sharing it only with their permission or when the law requires it.
The tendency to search for, interpret and recall information in ways that support existing beliefs or hypotheses, while giving less attention or weight to information that contradicts them.
The process by which reasoners sense, often quickly and without awareness, that an intuitive answer conflicts with logical or probabilistic principles, shown for example by lower confidence in intuitive answers to conflict problems.
A change in behaviour or belief that brings a person into line with a group, as a result of real or imagined group pressure rather than a direct request or order.
An extraneous variable that changes systematically with the independent variable, so that its effect cannot be separated from the effect of the independent variable.
The error of judging that a combination of two events or characteristics is more probable than one of them alone, which is logically impossible.
A written document in which a participant, and for a minor a parent or guardian, confirms that they understand a study’s aim, procedure and rights, and agree to take part.
The understanding that a quantity such as number, mass or volume stays the same when its appearance changes, as long as nothing is added or taken away.
A debiasing strategy in which people deliberately generate reasons why their initial judgement or an anchor might be wrong before making a final decision.
A rehabilitation treatment after stroke in which the unaffected arm is restrained so that the patient must practise intensively with the weakened arm, encouraging functional reorganisation.
An abstract psychological concept, such as intelligence, anxiety or attachment, that cannot be observed directly and has to be inferred from behaviour, self-report or physiological measures.
The extent to which a measure truly reflects the theoretical construct it is meant to measure, shown when it relates to other measures and behaviour as the theory predicts.
The comfort an infant gains from soft physical contact with a caregiver, which Harlow’s research with monkeys suggested is a more important basis for attachment than feeding.
The proposal that contact between members of different groups reduces prejudice, especially under conditions of equal status, shared goals, cooperation and support from authorities.
A research technique that systematically codes written, spoken or visual material into categories, which are then counted (quantitative) or interpreted for meaning (qualitative).
A real-world area in which psychological content and concepts are applied; the course uses four: health and well-being, human development, human relationships, and learning and cognition.
Better recall when the external environment at retrieval matches the environment in which the information was learned.
A model proposing that development is a gradual, cumulative process of quantitative change in knowledge, skills and processing capacity rather than a sequence of distinct stages.
The arrangement in which each cerebral hemisphere controls movement of, and receives sensation from, the opposite side of the body.
The group or condition in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, providing a baseline against which the experimental condition is compared.
An observation carried out in a setting arranged by the researcher, often a laboratory, so that every participant meets the same situation and behaviour can be recorded systematically.
The cognitive and behavioural efforts a person makes to manage a stressful situation and the emotions it causes, either by changing the problem (problem-focused) or by regulating the emotions (emotion-focused).
A model who at first shows difficulty, errors or doubt and then gradually overcomes them, demonstrating both a skill and how to deal with setbacks.
A thick band of nerve fibres that joins the left and right cerebral hemispheres and allows them to share information.
A relationship between two variables in which they change together, either in the same direction (positive correlation) or in opposite directions (negative correlation), without showing that one causes the other.
A number between −1 and +1 that shows the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; values near zero mean little or no linear relationship.
A research method that measures two or more variables as they naturally occur and tests whether and how strongly they are related, without manipulating either variable.
A hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress that raises blood sugar, suppresses non-essential functions such as immune responses, and affects memory.
Weighing the possible costs of a study to participants, such as distress or deception, against its possible benefits, such as new knowledge or better treatments, to judge whether it is justified.
A control for order effects in a repeated measures design in which participants complete the conditions in different orders, for example half in the order AB and half in the order BA.
A technique that replaces an unwanted conditioned response with an incompatible one by pairing the conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that produces the new response, such as relaxation.
A psychological treatment in which a therapist works with both partners together to reduce relationship distress, for example by changing communication, behaviour or emotional responses.
An observation in which the participants do not know that they are being observed, for example because the observer is hidden or poses as an ordinary member of the group.
The extent to which qualitative findings give a true and believable picture of the participants' experiences and perceptions; a part of trustworthiness.
A type of validity showing the extent to which scores on a measure agree with, or predict, an outside criterion such as behaviour, diagnosis or a later outcome.
A limited window in development during which a specific experience is necessary for a function to develop normally; if the experience is missing, the function cannot develop fully later.
The careful analysis and evaluation of claims, evidence and arguments, including their assumptions, alternative explanations and limitations, in order to reach a reasoned judgement.
Research that compares behaviour or mental processes in two or more cultures, using the same method or measure in each, to find out which findings are universal and which are culturally specific.
A research design that compares different groups, such as different age groups, at a single point in time, showing differences between groups rather than change within individuals.
A systematic distortion that arises when behaviour is studied or judged by the standards of one culture, or when findings from one culture are assumed to apply to all cultures.
The ability to understand, respect and work effectively with people from cultures other than one’s own, including awareness of how one’s own culture shapes one’s assumptions.
The spread of beliefs, practices, products or technologies from one cultural group to another through contact such as trade, migration, media or the internet.
A measurable aspect of a culture’s shared values on which whole cultures can be placed and compared, such as individualism–collectivism or power distance, used to explain cross-cultural similarities and differences in behaviour.
An aspect of culture, such as shared values, language, schooling, social practices or the environment a group lives in, that influences behaviour or a cognitive process.
The principle that behaviour and beliefs should be understood and judged in relation to the culture in which they occur, rather than by the standards of the researcher’s own culture.
A schema learned through membership of a culture, such as a script for a wedding or a meal, which members of that culture share and use to interpret events and texts.
The psychological tools (such as language, number systems and writing) and material tools (such as calculators or maps) that a culture provides and that shape how its members think.
A treatment whose content, language, delivery or goals have been systematically changed to fit the culture of the people receiving it, while keeping its active ingredients.
The shared beliefs, values, norms, practices and symbols of a group, passed from one generation to the next and shaping the identity and behaviour of its members.
The confusion, anxiety and disorientation that can follow moving into an unfamiliar culture, when familiar cues and routines no longer apply.
A pattern of distress and behaviour recognised as an illness within a particular culture, with its own local name and explanation; DSM-5 calls these cultural concepts of distress.
A small signalling protein released by immune cells; pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and TNF-α promote inflammation and can affect mood and behaviour.