190 of the History glossary’s terms, each with the part of the syllabus where you first meet it.
The killing by Egyptian security forces of at least 817 people, according to Human Rights Watch, when they broke up the sit-in of supporters of the deposed president Mohamed Morsi at Rabaa al-Adawiya Square, Cairo, on 14 August 2013.
The idea, associated with Gilberto Freyre and long official in Brazil, that racial mixing had produced a society without racism; Afro-Brazilian activists called it a myth that hid discrimination.
Japan's proposal at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to write equal treatment regardless of race into the Covenant of the League of Nations; it won a majority but was blocked by President Wilson's ruling that unanimity was needed.
The boundary between India and Pakistan drawn in 1947 by boundary commissions chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, which divided Punjab and Bengal. It was published on 17 August 1947, after independence.
The strand of feminism that sees male power (patriarchy) running through the family, sexuality and culture, and argues that legal reform alone cannot end it.
The influence of a movement's militant or violent wing on the success of its moderate wing: positive when it makes the authorities more willing to deal with the moderates, negative when it discredits the whole movement.
The members of the Republican Party in Congress who pressed for emancipation during the Civil War and for strong federal protection of Black civil and political rights during Reconstruction.
The process by which a person comes to support or take part in extreme political or religious ideas, including the use of violence to achieve them.
A private Rwandan radio station (1993–1994) linked to Hutu Power that spread anti-Tutsi propaganda and directed killers during the genocide.
A scientific method that estimates when a once-living thing died by measuring the decay of carbon-14 in it; a known spike in carbon-14 in tree rings can give an exact year.
The CUP coup of 23 January 1913, led by Enver, in which the war minister was killed and the government overthrown, beginning CUP single-party rule.
The blockades of the Trans-Siberian and other railways by Russian coal miners in May 1998, in protest at unpaid wages.
The protests of 1911, strongest in Sichuan, against the Qing plan to nationalise provincial railways with foreign loans; they helped to trigger the Xinhai Revolution.
The principle that the security and power of the state come before every private interest or moral rule; used to justify actions such as unprovoked wars.
One of the owners and financiers of the large Witwatersrand gold-mining companies in the late nineteenth century, such as Cecil Rhodes, Alfred Beit and Julius Wernher.
"Dutch learning": the study of Western science, medicine and military technology in Tokugawa Japan through Dutch books obtained at Nagasaki.
A Hindu nationalist volunteer organisation founded in 1925 that promotes the idea of India as a Hindu nation.
A federation of political parties across French West and Equatorial Africa founded at Bamako in October 1946, led by Houphouët-Boigny.
The single political party created by the Shah in March 1975, replacing the two official parties. Its anti-profiteering campaign of 1975–1976 against shopkeepers and bazaar merchants turned the bazaar against the regime.
The view that reason, rather than tradition, revelation or the senses alone, is the main source of knowledge, associated with René Descartes.
A government system that limits how much of a scarce good (food, fuel, clothing) each person may buy, to share supplies fairly in wartime.
An escape route, mainly through Italy and Spain to South America, by which some Nazi war criminals and collaborators fled Europe after 1945.
The confiscation of Māori land by the Crown under the New Zealand Settlements Act 1863 and related laws after the New Zealand Wars, about 1.2 million hectares in all.
The armed militia of the Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen in Hyderabad, led by Qasim Razvi in 1947–1948, which supported the Nizam's bid for independence and attacked his opponents until the Indian invasion of September 1948.
A system of compulsory grain quotas imposed on the peasants, first introduced by the tsarist government in December 1916 and used much more harshly by the Bolsheviks under war communism.
The Constitutional Democratic Rally, the ruling party of Tunisia under Ben Ali from 1988 to 2011, successor to Bourguiba's party. It was dissolved by a court in March 2011.
A prison camp in which communist governments in Vietnam and Laos held people linked to the former regimes, without trial, for forced labour and political indoctrination, often for many years.
The policy of the Reagan administration from the mid-1980s of supporting anti-communist rebels fighting Soviet-backed governments, as in Nicaragua, Afghanistan and Angola.
The economic policies of Ronald Reagan (1981–1989): large cuts in income tax, cuts in domestic spending with higher defence spending, deregulation, and support for tight money to defeat inflation.
A wage measured by what it can buy, after taking account of changes in prices; if prices rise faster than money wages, real wages fall.
Politics based on practical calculations of power and interest rather than moral or ideological principles; the term was coined by Ludwig von Rochau in 1853.
A person freed from a slave ship seized by the Royal Navy after 1807; most were landed at Freetown in Sierra Leone, where many settled.
The US law of 1934 that allowed the president to negotiate tariff reductions of up to half with other countries in return for similar cuts.
The exchange of goods or labour based on mutual obligation, as when households help one another and the help is later returned.
The 1854 agreement allowing free trade in natural products between British North America and the USA, which the USA ended in 1866; its loss encouraged Canadian Confederation.
The Spanish policy in Cuba from 1896 of forcing rural people into guarded towns and camps to cut the rebels off from support; it caused mass deaths from hunger and disease.
The centuries-long Christian conquest of Muslim-ruled Iberia, completed by the fall of Granada on 2 January 1492; it gave Spain a tradition of crusade and of conquest rewarded with land and titles.
The period from 1865 to 1877 in which the defeated Confederate states were brought back into the United States and the rights of freed African Americans were defined, enforced and then abandoned.
US laws of 1867 that placed ten former Confederate states under military rule until they adopted new constitutions with Black male suffrage and ratified the Fourteenth Amendment.
A US federal agency created in January 1932 under Hoover to lend money to banks, railways, insurance companies and later states. Roosevelt kept and expanded it.
A West German far-left terrorist group active from 1970 to 1998, responsible for bombings, kidnappings and murders, above all in the German Autumn of 1977.
Units of urban workers from the Casa del Obrero Mundial who fought for Carranza's Constitutionalists against Villa and Zapata in 1915.
A member of the student and youth groups mobilised by Mao in the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to attack party officials, intellectuals and "class enemies".
The name the Gestapo gave to anti-Nazi networks in Germany and occupied Europe that passed information to the Soviet Union and distributed leaflets. The Berlin group was uncovered in 1942 and many of its members were executed.
Citizens Plus, the reply of the Indian Association of Alberta to the 1969 White Paper, presented in June 1970, which argued that First Nations people had the rights of all citizens plus their treaty rights.
The militant Native American movement of the late 1960s and 1970s, inspired partly by Black Power, which used occupations and direct action to demand treaty rights and self-determination.
The dismissal of communists and suspected sympathisers from Japanese unions, media, businesses and government in 1949–1950, encouraged by the occupation authorities during the Reverse Course.
The resistance of the Métis of Red River in 1869–1870, led by Louis Riel, to Canada's takeover of Rupert's Land; it led to the Manitoba Act of 1870.
The name critics gave to the wild rubber collected in the Congo Free State through quotas enforced by hostage-taking, flogging, mutilation and killing, roughly 1891–1906.
The wave of fear of communism and radicalism in the USA in 1919–1920, marked by raids, mass arrests and deportations of suspected radicals.
Armed white Democratic groups in South Carolina, and later North Carolina, that used violence and intimidation against Black voters and Republicans, notably in the election of 1876.
The wave of racial violence in more than two dozen US cities in 1919, in which white mobs attacked African Americans.
The Derg's campaign of mass arrests, torture and killings in 1977–1978 against the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Party and other opponents, especially students in the towns.
Risings in central and southern China from 1351, partly inspired by belief in the coming of the future Buddha, Maitreya, from which Zhu Yuanzhang emerged to found the Ming.
White Southern Democrats who regained control of Southern state governments from the Republicans between 1869 and 1877, claiming to have "redeemed" the South.
Annual payments that freed Russian serfs made to the state for 49 years to repay the cost of the land they received in 1861; they were cancelled from 1907.
An economic system in which goods are collected by a central authority, such as a ruler or temple, and then handed out again to workers, officials or people in need.
The refusal of banks and government agencies to lend money for homes in areas marked as risky because Black people lived there, based on maps drawn by federal housing agencies from the 1930s. It kept Black Americans out of home ownership and white suburbs.
A planned town into which Spanish authorities forced scattered Indigenous settlements to move, to make tribute collection, labour drafts and religious teaching easier; carried out on a large scale by Viceroy Toledo in Peru.
A vote in which the whole electorate decides directly on a single question, such as a new constitution, a change of territory or approval of a ruler; a vote used to approve a ruler or regime is often called a plebiscite.
The official name for the policies begun in China in December 1978: market reforms within the planned economy and the opening of China to foreign trade, investment and technology.
The Ottoman decree of February 1856, issued under British and French pressure, that promised non-Muslims full equality in government service, schools, courts and military service.
The campaign of 1937–1938 to make Italians more Fascist in daily life, replacing the polite form Lei with voi, the handshake with the Roman salute, and introducing the goose-step.
A Western Canadian populist conservative party founded in 1987 and led by Preston Manning; it won 52 seats in 1993, became the Canadian Alliance in 2000 and merged into the Conservative Party in 2003.
The religious movement begun by Martin Luther in 1517 that challenged the authority and teachings of the Catholic Church and created the Protestant churches.
A French priest who refused the oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy in 1790–1791, and was therefore removed from office and later persecuted.
A person outside their country of nationality who cannot or will not return because of a well-founded fear of persecution, as defined by the 1951 Refugee Convention. The word is also used more loosely for anyone who has fled war, persecution or violence.
The US law of 17 March 1980 that adopted the UN definition of a refugee, set annual admission ceilings and created a permanent system for admitting and resettling refugees.
The UN treaty adopted in Geneva on 28 July 1951 that defines a refugee as a person outside their country with a well-founded fear of persecution, and sets out refugees' rights, including protection from forced return. Its date and European limits were removed by the 1967 Protocol.
The legal procedure for deciding whether an individual asylum seeker meets the definition of a refugee. Under the Comprehensive Plan of Action it was called screening.
A manifesto published in 1948 by Quebec artists led by Paul-Émile Borduas, attacking the Catholic Church's control of Quebec culture and calling for freedom of thought and expression.
A Soviet citizen, usually Jewish, who was refused permission to emigrate and often lost their job as a result.
The doctrine that the monarch has authority over the Church in his kingdom in all matters except doctrine, including appointments, church property and the limits of papal power.
A Spanish reform movement after the defeat of 1898, associated with Joaquín Costa, that called for honest government, education and economic modernisation to end the rule of oligarchy and caciquismo.
A settlement into which the French army moved rural Algerians during the Algerian War to cut the guerrillas off from the population; later estimates put the number moved at about two million.
The British law of 1773 that first brought the East India Company under parliamentary supervision, created a Governor-General of Bengal with a council and a Supreme Court at Calcutta.
The official clearing of a person who had been wrongly convicted or punished, restoring their good name and some rights, often after their death; carried out on a large scale in the USSR after 1956 and again from 1987.
The Nazi body founded in September 1933 that every writer, journalist, musician, artist and actor had to join to work, allowing the regime to exclude Jews and opponents.
German citizens of the German Reich, as distinct from ethnic Germans who were citizens of other states.
The German parliament of the North German Confederation (1867), the German Empire (1871–1918) and the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), elected by universal male suffrage and, from 1919, by men and women.
The emergency decree of 28 February 1933 that suspended civil liberties in Germany after the Reichstag fire.
A secret treaty of June 1887 between Germany and Russia in which each promised neutrality if the other went to war, unless Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria-Hungary. Germany did not renew it in 1890.
The gap between what people believe they deserve and what they actually get; Ted Robert Gurr argued (1970) that this gap, more than absolute poverty, drives protest.
Camps run by Canada's Department of National Defence from 1932 to 1936, where single unemployed men worked on public projects for board, lodging and 20 cents a day.
The political movement of conservative evangelical Christians in the USA, organised from 1979 by groups such as Jerry Falwell's Moral Majority, which became a core part of the Republican coalition.
Money sent by a migrant worker to family or others in their home area or country.
The revival of classical learning and the new styles in art, architecture and literature that began in Italy in the fourteenth century and spread across Europe by the sixteenth century. The word means "rebirth".
The rebel movement formed in 1976–1977 with Rhodesian, and later South African, support that fought FRELIMO's government in a civil war until 1992.
The CCP's wartime policy in its base areas of limiting rents (usually to 37.5 per cent of the crop) and interest on loans, instead of confiscating land, to win peasants without driving landlords out of the united front.
The temporary currency introduced in Germany in November 1923, issued in strictly limited amounts, which ended hyperinflation; it was replaced by the Reichsmark in 1924.
A state that receives most of its income from external rent, such as oil exports, rather than from taxing its citizens. Because it does not depend on taxpayers it can ignore them politically, but it is vulnerable to falls in revenue.
A loan of £25 million from a consortium of British, French, German, Russian and Japanese banks, signed by Yuan Shikai in April 1913 without the approval of parliament; it paid for the army he used against his opponents.
The Allied body set up by the Treaty of Versailles to fix the total of German reparations, which it did in 1921, and to supervise payments; it declared Germany in default in 1922–1923.
Payments demanded from a defeated state to compensate the victors for the costs and damage of a war, as imposed on Germany after the First World War; the word is also used for compensation claimed for historic wrongs such as slavery.
In New Spain from the 1550s, a rotating labour draft that required Indigenous communities to send a share of their men to work for short periods for Spanish employers at fixed wages.
The return of a person to their country of nationality or origin.
The set of protest methods, such as petitions, meetings, marches, boycotts, strikes and sit-ins, that a movement knows how to use at a given time and place. The idea comes from the sociologist Charles Tilly.
British law that gave the vote to all men over 21 and to women over 30 who met a property qualification.
The use of force or the threat of force by a state to silence or destroy opposition, through arrest, imprisonment, execution, deportation, censorship or the use of troops and police.
The right to decide whether and when to have children, including access to contraception and abortion and protection from forced sterilisation.
The international community of scholars and writers in early modern Europe who exchanged letters, books and ideas across borders.
The state in the south of Vietnam proclaimed by Ngô Đình Diệm in October 1955 and backed by the United States. It lasted until North Vietnamese forces took Saigon on 30 April 1975.
In Spanish colonial law, the legal community of Spaniards, governed separately from the republic of Indians.
In Spanish colonial law, the separate legal community of Indigenous people, with their own town councils and nobles, who paid tribute and were in principle protected from Spanish settlers.
The US political party founded in 1854 by opponents of the expansion of slavery into the western territories; its candidate Abraham Lincoln won the presidency in 1860.
The party founded by Mustafa Kemal in 1923, the only legal party in Türkiye for most of the period up to 1946.
The belief that a state should be governed by elected representatives of its citizens rather than a hereditary monarch, and that its survival depends on the civic virtue of those citizens.
The East German term for leaving the GDR without permission, a crime from 1957; about 2.7 million people left between 1949 and 1961.
A Spanish legal document of 1513 read to Indigenous peoples before an attack, demanding that they accept the authority of the pope and the Spanish crown and declaring war and enslavement lawful if they refused.
The seizure of goods (food, animals, vehicles, buildings) or labour by an army or government for war use, usually with little or no payment.
An area of land set aside by the US government (a reserve in Canada) for an Indigenous nation, usually far smaller than its former territory, where its people were confined and controlled by federal agents.
The permanent settlement of a refugee or displaced person in a third country, neither their home country nor the country where they first found refuge.
A Company (later British) official posted at the court of an Indian ruler, through whom the Company supervised and controlled the state.
The Japanese official who controlled Korea's foreign relations, and from 1907 its internal government, during the protectorate of 1905–1910.
A boarding school for Indigenous children in Canada, funded by the federal government and run by churches from the 1880s to 1996, designed to separate children from their families, languages and cultures.
The capacity of inherited beliefs, customs and forms of knowledge to adapt and endure alongside innovations, rather than simply disappearing or blocking them.
The mass campaign in China during the Korean War that mobilised support for the war and justified campaigns against counter-revolutionaries and private business.
Deliberate action aimed at weakening or overthrowing a regime, such as distributing leaflets, sabotage, armed revolt, hiding its victims or plotting a coup.
Opposition to the adoption or spread of a new technology, technique, institution or idea, through bans and regulation, protest and violence, refusal to adopt, or support for rival methods.
Martin Broszat's term (from the Bavaria Project of the 1970s and 1980s) for the ways in which institutions, communities and groups limited the reach of the Nazi regime and kept their own values, without trying to overthrow it. The word means 'immunity'.
The decision of the Vietnamese Communist Party’s Central Committee in January 1959 to approve armed struggle against Diệm’s government in the south, alongside political struggle.
The UN General Assembly resolution of 29 November 1947 that recommended dividing Palestine into a Jewish state, an Arab state and an international zone around Jerusalem.
The UN General Assembly resolution of 11 December 1948 whose paragraph 11 resolved that refugees wishing to return to their homes and live in peace should be allowed to do so, or be compensated.
The UN Security Council resolution of November 1967 calling for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in the war and for the right of all states in the area to live in peace within secure and recognised boundaries.
The UN Security Council resolution of 29 September 1978 that set out a plan for Namibian independence: a ceasefire, a UN force (UNTAG) and UN-supervised elections. It was finally carried out in 1989.
The principle, adopted at the UN World Summit in 2005, that states must protect their people from genocide and other mass atrocities and that the international community should act if they fail.
A system in which ministers must have the support of a majority in the elected assembly; granted to Nova Scotia and the Province of Canada in 1848 and to most Australian colonies and New Zealand in 1855–1857.
A British law of 1919 that required employers to restore the pre-war working practices agreed with trade unions, returning many skilled jobs taken by women during the First World War to men.
The political system of Spain from the return of the Bourbon monarchy in 1874 to Primo de Rivera's coup in 1923, a constitutional monarchy in which two parties shared power through managed elections.
The period of Mexican history from the defeat of Maximilian in 1867 to Porfirio Díaz's seizure of power in 1876, under Benito Juárez and Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada.
A ruler who had given up the throne to a younger successor but continued to guide or control government, as under the Trần in Đại Việt and the insei system in Japan.
The group of young Moscow-trained CCP leaders, such as Wang Ming and Bo Gu, who led the party with Comintern backing from 1931 until the Zunyi Conference of 1935.
A political desire for revenge on a state that has defeated one's country, above all the French wish after 1871 to recover Alsace-Lorraine from Germany.
The change in US occupation policy in Japan from about 1948, when economic recovery and anti-communism took priority over the earlier reforms.
In historiography, an interpretation that challenges an established one, often using new sources or asking new questions.
The right-wing form of Zionism founded by Ze'ev Jabotinsky in 1925, which demanded a Jewish state on both banks of the Jordan and stressed military strength; the forerunner of the Likud.
The revolutionary society founded by Sun Yixian in Honolulu in 1894 to overthrow the Qing.
A week of rioting in Rio de Janeiro in November 1904 against a law making smallpox vaccination compulsory and against the city's wider modernisation; the government suspended compulsion and then repressed the revolt.
The name taken by the military regime that overthrew Perón in September 1955 and ruled Argentina until 1958. Peronists called it the 'Revolución Fusiladora' (the revolution of the firing squads).
Stalin’s transformation of the USSR from 1928 through collectivisation and the Five-Year Plans, imposed by the party-state on society rather than coming from popular revolt.
The calendar used in France from 1793 to 1805, which counted years from the founding of the Republic (Year I began on 22 September 1792) and gave months new names such as Brumaire and Thermidor.
The organ of power set up in Chinese provinces, cities and workplaces from 1967, combining rebels, army officers and approved cadres; in practice usually dominated by the army.
The Cuban campaign of 1968 in which the state took over almost all remaining small private businesses, from shops to street stalls.
The attacks by bands of crusaders on the Jewish communities of Speyer, Worms, Mainz and other Rhineland towns in May and June 1096, at the start of the First Crusade.
A student protest movement that began at the University of Cape Town in 2015 and won the removal of a statue of Cecil Rhodes; it spread to other universities as a campaign against colonial legacies.
Protests and riots against the high price of rice that spread across Japan in July–September 1918; they brought down the Terauchi cabinet and led to Hara Takashi's party cabinet.
Nigeria's constitution of 1946, in force from 1947, which created regional assemblies for the North, West and East alongside a central Legislative Council.
The episode of 1935 when the Canadian government disowned its League delegate Walter Riddell's proposal to add oil to sanctions against Italy.
The Palestinian claim, based on Resolution 194, that refugees of 1948 and their descendants may return to their homes in what became Israel; Israel rejects it.
A constitutional right found by the US Supreme Court in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), protecting intimate personal decisions such as contraception and, from 1973, abortion.
The title given by Yad Vashem to non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.
Irregular Korean militias raised to resist foreign invasion; in 1895–1896 and 1905–1910 they fought Japanese forces and pro-Japanese officials.
In Mao's China, a person officially labelled an opponent of socialism, above all in the Anti-Rightist Campaign of 1957; the label brought loss of work and often labour camp, and was removed only in 1978–1979.
The Constitutional Reform Party founded by Ōkuma Shigenobu in 1882, supported by urban professionals and favouring British-style parliamentary government.
A viral disease of cattle whose epizootic swept across Africa from about 1888 to 1897, killing most of the cattle in many pastoral societies.
The mutual defence treaty signed by the American republics on 2 September 1947, under which an armed attack on one American state was to be treated as an attack on all.
Tirpitz's argument that Germany needed a fleet only strong enough that even the greatest naval power would endanger its own position by fighting it, which would force Britain to respect Germany.
The nineteenth-century movement for Italian national unity and independence, meaning "resurgence" or "revival".
The trial of 1963–1964 in which Nelson Mandela and other leaders of Umkhonto we Sizwe were convicted of sabotage and sentenced to life imprisonment.
The unpaid labour that peasants owed their lords in the Habsburg lands, especially Bohemia, often several days a week.
A trade treaty of 1 May 1933 in which Britain guaranteed a quota for Argentine chilled beef and Argentina gave concessions to British goods and companies.
A large US philanthropic organisation founded in 1913 that funded medical and agricultural research abroad, including the programme in Mexico from 1943 that bred the wheat of the Green Revolution.
The US Supreme Court ruling of 22 January 1973 that recognised a constitutional right to abortion, limited by the stage of pregnancy. It was overturned in 2022.
The free-market economic reforms of New Zealand's fourth Labour government (1984–1990), named after the finance minister Roger Douglas: floating the dollar, removing subsidies and controls, a goods and services tax and corporatisation.
The office set up in Kyoto by the Kamakura shogunate after 1221 to watch the imperial court, keep order in the capital and govern western Japan.
The sustained US bombing campaign against North Vietnam from March 1965 to November 1968, intended to break Hanoi’s will and cut its supplies to the south.
The cultural movement of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries that valued emotion, imagination, history and the distinct character of each people, and inspired cultural nationalism.
Labourers, mainly from Java, forced or pressed into work by the Japanese occupation authorities in Southeast Asia during the Second World War.
A peasant self-defence patrol in the Peruvian Andes; from the late 1980s many communities formed rondas, often armed by the army, to resist the Shining Path.
Theodore Roosevelt's addition of 1904 to the Monroe Doctrine, claiming a US right to act as an 'international police power' in Latin American states that failed to keep order or pay their debts.
The sharp economic downturn of 1937–1938 in the USA, which followed cuts in federal spending and tighter credit.
A fictional figure used in US wartime propaganda to represent women working in war industries.
Three conferences held in London in 1930–1932 between the British government and representatives of Indian parties, princes and minorities to discuss a new constitution for India. They led to the Government of India Act 1935.
The Royal Commission on Dominion–Provincial Relations, appointed in Canada in 1937, which reported in 1940 that Ottawa should take over unemployment relief and support the poorer provinces.
The Indian law of March 1919 that extended wartime powers to detain suspected revolutionaries without trial, provoking Gandhi's first all-India campaign.
An English trading company chartered in 1660 (rechartered in 1672) that held a monopoly of English trade with West Africa and transported many thousands of enslaved Africans to the Americas.
The Canadian royal commission (1963–1969) that investigated relations between English and French Canadians and recommended equal status for the two languages, leading to the Official Languages Act.
The lands held and ruled directly by a king, as opposed to those held from him by nobles.
The seizure of power in Rwanda in 1896, after Rwabugiri's death, by a faction that overthrew his designated heir and installed Yuhi V Musinga.
The agreement of 30 October 1888 by which the Ndebele king Lobengula granted Cecil Rhodes's agents exclusive mining rights; Rhodes used it to obtain the charter of the British South Africa Company.
Herbert Hoover's phrase for the American tradition of self-reliance, in which individuals, families, charities and local communities, not the federal government, were responsible for their own welfare.
The book of history, morals and autobiography by Turkmen president Saparmurat Niyazov (2001), made compulsory reading in schools and public life.
The occupation of Germany’s main industrial region by French and Belgian troops from January 1923, to collect reparations in coal and timber that Germany had failed to deliver. It was met by German passive resistance and ended in September 1923.
The negotiated route to democracy in Spain in 1976–1978, combining the reformers' use of Francoist law (reforma) with the opposition's demand for a full break (ruptura) with the dictatorship.
The mounted rural police force of nineteenth-century Mexico, expanded under Díaz to keep order in the countryside. It became a symbol of the regime's repression, although it was smaller and less effective than its reputation.
The Russian Marxist party founded in 1898, which split in 1903 into the Bolshevik and Menshevik factions.
The spread of the Russian language and culture among non-Russian peoples, by policy or pressure, such as compulsory Russian in schools and the Cyrillic alphabet.
A movement and army formed in 1987 by mainly Tutsi Rwandan refugees in Uganda; it invaded Rwanda in 1990, ended the genocide in 1994 and has ruled Rwanda since.
The land-revenue system introduced in Madras by Thomas Munro, in which the government assessed and collected revenue directly from each cultivator (ryot) and revised it periodically.
A document circulated in 1932 by the Soviet party official Martemyan Ryutin and a small group, which blamed Stalin for the crisis of collectivisation and called for his removal as General Secretary. Its authors were imprisoned and Ryutin was shot in 1937.