65 of the Geography glossary’s terms, each with the part of the syllabus where you first meet it.
Gaining unauthorised access to a computer, network, account or data, for example by exploiting a weakness in software or by stealing passwords.
A large atmospheric circulation in which air rises near the Equator, flows poleward at 12–15 km, sinks near 30° latitude, creating subtropical high pressure, and returns towards the Equator as the trade winds.
A model (1953) in which an innovation spreads outward from an innovation centre through primary, diffusion, condensing and saturation stages, mainly by personal contact, declining with distance.
The worldwide spread of South Korean popular culture, including K-pop, television dramas, films, food and beauty products, since the late 1990s.
A tributary valley whose floor lies high above the floor of a main glacial trough, because its smaller glacier eroded less deeply; its stream enters the trough by a waterfall.
The use of artificial structures such as sea walls, groynes and rock armour to control natural coastal processes and protect the land behind them.
The use of coercion or payment, such as military force, economic sanctions, aid or trade deals, to make other states act in a particular way.
A potential threat to people, property or the environment from a natural or human process.
Adjusting land use, buildings, behaviour and institutions so that people can live with a hazard and suffer less harm from it, without trying to stop the hazard itself.
A diagram or table that compares the physical characteristics of a hazard event, such as magnitude, frequency, duration, areal extent, speed of onset and spatial predictability, on a scale from low to high.
Estimating the probability of a hazard event of a given size occurring in an area over a period of time.
How often a hazard event of a given magnitude occurs in a place, often expressed as a recurrence interval or an annual probability.
The size or energy of a hazard event, measured on a scale such as moment magnitude, the VEI or the volume of a landslide.
The way in which individuals or groups understand and judge the threat posed by a hazard, shaped by experience, knowledge, culture, religion, wealth and trust in authorities.
Stating precisely when and where a hazard event will occur and how large it will be.
The probability of harm or loss from a hazard event, which depends on the hazard, the exposure and vulnerability of people and assets, and their capacity to cope.
A widespread layer of air pollution, made mainly of fine smoke particles and gases from fires and industry, that reduces visibility and harms health, and can be carried across borders.
A measurable characteristic of a population, such as life expectancy, infant mortality or doctors per person, used to describe its health or the factors that influence it.
The average number of years a person can expect to live in full health, after allowing for years lived in less than full health because of disease or injury; the WHO’s measure.
The place where a phenomenon, such as an innovation or a disease, originates and from which it diffuses; the source of diffusion.
A city or regional plan to reduce deaths and illness in heatwaves, combining early warnings, public information, cooling centres, protection of vulnerable groups and long-term cooling measures.
A cross-section of air temperature across an urban area, showing a steep rise (cliff) at the urban edge, a suburban plateau, a peak over the CBD and cooler sinks over parks and water.
The strain on the body when it cannot lose enough heat to keep its core temperature stable, caused by high temperature, humidity, sunshine and exertion; it ranges from heat exhaustion to heat stroke.
A period of several consecutive days with temperatures unusually high for a particular place and season, defined by each national weather service.
A programme of the IMF and the World Bank, launched in 1996, that cancels much of the external debt of the poorest, most indebted countries once they meet conditions on reform and poverty reduction.
The dominance of one state over others, exercised through military and economic strength and through leadership of the rules, institutions and ideas that other states accept.
A corkscrew-like flow of water through a meander bend, in which surface water moves towards the outer bank and returns along the bed towards the inner bank.
Indirect protection from an infectious disease that occurs when a large enough share of a population is immune, through vaccination or previous infection, that the disease cannot spread easily.
Travel to experience places, buildings, artefacts and traditions that represent the history and culture of a people, such as ancient monuments, historic cities and religious sites.
Expansion diffusion through an ordered sequence of places or people, typically from large, well-connected cities or influential groups down to smaller places.
The ranking of clubs in a sports league system into levels or divisions, from a top tier with a few wealthy clubs down to many smaller ones.
The parts of the ocean beyond any state's exclusive economic zone, open to all states and governed by international law.
A mountain or plateau environment outside the polar regions where low temperature, low air pressure, intense solar radiation and steep relief make conditions extreme because of height above sea level.
A country whose GNI per capita (World Bank Atlas method) is above the high-income threshold, US$14,375 in the classification published in July 2026.
A specialised facility that is used infrequently, has a large range and threshold population, and draws users from a large sphere of influence, such as a national park or national stadium.
A crop variety bred to give much larger yields per hectare than traditional varieties, usually when supplied with enough water, fertiliser and pesticide.
A graph that shows the mean velocity at which particles of different sizes are eroded, transported or deposited by a river, plotted on logarithmic axes from laboratory measurements.
A coastal management policy of keeping the shoreline in its present position by maintaining existing defences or building new ones.
A process in which places and cultures become more alike, as global products, brands, media and building styles replace local differences.
A place that attracts large numbers of visitors because of its attractions and facilities; managers may develop honeypots deliberately to concentrate visitors where damage can be controlled.
The merger or takeover of companies at the same stage of a supply chain, such as two hotel groups combining, to gain market share and economies of scale.
Physical measures such as bollards, barriers, planters and street furniture placed to stop vehicles being driven into crowds or buildings.
An arid environment with very low annual precipitation, usually under 250 mm, high daytime temperatures for most of the year and sparse vegetation, such as the Sahara or the Kalahari.
An area of volcanic activity fed by a mantle plume, often far from a plate boundary, such as Hawaii or Yellowstone.
A model (1939) of a city in which land uses form wedge-shaped sectors growing outwards along transport routes from the centre, with high-class housing in sectors away from industry.
A transport network in which routes from many smaller places (spokes) connect to a central node (the hub), where passengers or goods change routes, rather than travelling directly between every pair of places.
The knowledge, skills, health and experience of a population, which determine how productive its people can be; it is increased by investment in education, training and healthcare.
A process of enlarging people’s freedoms and capabilities, so that they can live long, healthy, educated and secure lives of their own choosing; wider than economic growth.
A composite index published by the UNDP that combines life expectancy, education (mean and expected years of schooling) and GNI per capita (PPP) into a value between 0 and 1.
The right of every person to sufficient, safe, acceptable, physically accessible and affordable water for personal and domestic use, recognised by the UN General Assembly in 2010.
The recruitment, transport, transfer or holding of people by force, coercion, fraud or abuse of vulnerability, for the purpose of exploitation such as forced labour, sexual exploitation or slavery.
The quality of people's lives in all its dimensions, including health, safety, housing, income and livelihoods, education, social relationships, culture and the ability to make choices.
Short-term assistance given in an emergency such as a war, disaster or famine to save lives and relieve suffering, including food, water, shelter, medical care and protection.
A tropical cyclone that forms in the North Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico or north-east Pacific, with sustained winds of at least 119 km/h.
An erosion process in which the force of moving water, and air compressed into cracks by it, loosens and removes material from the bed and banks of a channel or from a cliff.
A measure of channel efficiency found by dividing the cross-sectional area of a channel by its wetted perimeter; a larger value means less water in contact with the bed and banks and less friction.
A chemical compound of hydrogen and carbon; in energy geography, the collective term for crude oil and natural gas.
Electricity generated by the flow of water through turbines, usually water released from a reservoir behind a dam.
The continuous circulation of water between the oceans, atmosphere, land and living things, driven by solar energy and gravity; at the global scale it is a closed system.
A period in which river flows, lake and reservoir levels and water tables fall well below normal, usually lagging months behind a meteorological drought.
A method of growing plants without soil, with their roots in water containing dissolved mineral nutrients.
An opening in the seabed, usually on a mid-ocean ridge, from which water heated by magma flows out, depositing metal-rich sulphide minerals and supporting unique ecosystems.
A dangerous fall in the body's core temperature below 35 °C, caused by losing heat faster than it is produced, especially in cold, wet or windy conditions.
A testable statement predicting a relationship or difference between variables, based on geographical theory, which fieldwork data can support or reject.
A condition of very low dissolved oxygen in water, usually below about 2 mg per litre, that most aquatic animals cannot survive; anoxia is the complete absence of oxygen.