Psychology terms in Research methodology

The tendency of some participants to agree with statements in a questionnaire or interview regardless of their content; also called yea-saying.

A general statement of what a study sets out to investigate, usually naming the behaviour, the variables or the population of interest, without predicting the result.

A prediction that there will be an effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, or a relationship between variables; it may be directional (stating which way) or non-directional.

A detailed record of every step and decision in a qualitative study, from data collection to analysis, that allows another researcher to check how the findings were reached.

A detailed, usually long-term investigation of a single individual, group, event or community, using several methods such as interviews, observations and records.

A question with a fixed set of possible answers, such as yes/no, multiple choice or a rating scale, which produces quantitative data.

A longitudinal study that follows a group of people who share a characteristic, such as being born in the same year and place, measuring them repeatedly over time.

A person who appears to be a participant or bystander but is working for the researcher and follows a script as part of the procedure.

An extraneous variable that changes systematically with the independent variable, so that its effect cannot be separated from the effect of the independent variable.

The group or condition in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or manipulation, providing a baseline against which the experimental condition is compared.

An observation carried out in a setting arranged by the researcher, often a laboratory, so that every participant meets the same situation and behaviour can be recorded systematically.

A number between −1 and +1 that shows the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; values near zero mean little or no linear relationship.

A research method that measures two or more variables as they naturally occur and tests whether and how strongly they are related, without manipulating either variable.

A control for order effects in a repeated measures design in which participants complete the conditions in different orders, for example half in the order AB and half in the order BA.

An observation in which the participants do not know that they are being observed, for example because the observer is hidden or poses as an ordinary member of the group.

The extent to which qualitative findings give a true and believable picture of the participants' experiences and perceptions; a part of trustworthiness.

Cues in a study that suggest to participants what the researcher expects, which can lead them to change their behaviour to fit their interpretation of the study's purpose.

The variable that the researcher measures in an experiment, expected to change as a result of the independent variable.

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to behaviour in real-life settings, which depends on how natural the setting, task and materials were.

Reflection on how the researcher's choices of research question, method and analysis may have shaped the findings and what other choices could have shown.

A form of researcher bias in which the researcher's expectations about the results unintentionally influence participants' behaviour or the way data are recorded.

A research method in which the researcher manipulates an independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable while controlling other variables, so that cause and effect can be tested.

The procedures used to stop extraneous variables affecting the dependent variable, such as standardised instructions, random allocation, counterbalancing, control groups and blinding.

Any variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable and so must be controlled or accounted for.

An experiment carried out in a real-world setting, such as a school, street or workplace, in which the researcher still manipulates the independent variable.

A group interview in which a small group of participants, usually about four to ten, discuss a topic together, guided by a moderator.

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to people, settings and times beyond the sample studied; also called external validity.

A change in participants' behaviour, often an improvement in performance, that occurs because they know they are being observed or studied rather than because of the variable being tested.

A precise, testable prediction of the relationship between variables in a study, stated in operationalised terms.

An experimental design in which different participants take part in each condition, so each person experiences only one level of the independent variable.

The variable that the researcher manipulates or compares in an experiment, to test its effect on the dependent variable.

A self-report research method in which a researcher asks participants questions face to face, by phone or online and records their spoken answers.

An experiment carried out in a controlled, artificial setting where the researcher manipulates the independent variable and keeps other variables as constant as possible.

A rating scale on which participants show how far they agree or disagree with a statement, usually on five or seven points from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

An experimental design in which participants are paired on characteristics relevant to the study, such as age or ability, and one member of each pair is placed in each condition.

A credibility strategy in qualitative research in which participants are asked to check the researcher's transcripts or interpretations to confirm that they represent their views accurately; also called respondent validation.

A statistical technique that combines the results of many studies on the same question to estimate the overall size and consistency of an effect.

A study in which the independent variable changes naturally, through an event the researcher did not cause or control, and the researcher measures its effect on behaviour.

An observation of behaviour in the setting where it normally occurs, such as a home, playground or street, with no interference from the researcher.

An observation in which the researcher watches the group from outside and does not take part in its activities.

A prediction that there will be no effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable, or no relationship between variables, and that any difference found is due to chance.

A research method in which the researcher watches and records behaviour as it happens, either in a natural setting or in a controlled one, without manipulating an independent variable.

A question that allows participants to answer freely in their own words, which produces qualitative data.

A sampling technique in which the researcher uses whoever is available and willing at the time, such as students in a class; also called convenience sampling.

Changes in performance caused by the order in which conditions are completed rather than by the independent variable, such as improvement through practice or decline through fatigue or boredom.

An observation in which the participants know that they are being observed and usually why.

A distortion of findings caused by participants changing their behaviour or answers because they know they are being studied, for example to help the researcher or to look good.

An observation in which the researcher joins the group being studied and takes part in its activities while recording behaviour.

Characteristics of individual participants, such as age, ability, personality or mood, that could affect the dependent variable if they are not equal across conditions.

Reflection on how a researcher's own values, experiences, culture, gender and relationship with participants may have shaped the research.

A sampling technique in which the researcher deliberately chooses participants who have the characteristics or experiences the study needs, common in qualitative research.

Research that collects non-numerical data, such as words, images or observed behaviour, and interprets it to understand meanings and experiences in depth.

Research that collects numerical data and analyses it statistically, usually to test hypotheses about relationships between variables.

A study that compares conditions without random allocation of participants, often because the groups already exist (such as cultures, sexes or age groups), so cause and effect cannot be firmly established.

A self-report research method in which participants answer a fixed set of written questions, usually on paper or online; the terms survey and questionnaire are used interchangeably.

A procedure in which every participant has an equal chance of being placed in each condition of an experiment, so participant variables are spread evenly across conditions.

A sampling technique in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected, for example by drawing names or using a random number generator.

A true experiment that tests a treatment or intervention by randomly allocating participants to receive it or to a control condition, such as a placebo, usual care or a waiting list.

A researcher's ongoing, critical awareness of how their own background, beliefs and choices of method may have influenced the research process and its findings.

An experimental design in which the same participants take part in every condition, so each person is compared with themselves.

Repeating a study, using the same or a very similar procedure with new participants, to check whether the original findings occur again.

A sample whose characteristics, such as age, sex, culture and income, match those of the target population closely enough for findings to be generalised to it.

A systematic way of collecting data to answer a research question, such as an experiment, observation, survey or questionnaire, interview, correlational study or case study.

The study of how psychologists plan and carry out research: the choice of method, sampling, procedures, data collection and analysis, and the considerations that decide how far findings can be trusted.

A distortion of findings caused by the researcher's expectations, beliefs or behaviour, which may affect how a study is designed, how participants are treated, or how data are recorded and interpreted.

The group of participants actually selected to take part in a study, drawn from the target population.

A systematic error that occurs when some members of the target population are more likely than others to be included in a sample, so the sample does not represent the population.

The list or source from which a sample is actually drawn, such as an electoral register, a school roll or a telephone directory; a biased frame produces a biased sample.

The procedure used to select participants for a study from the target population, such as random, stratified, opportunity, self-selected or snowball sampling.

A sampling technique in which people choose to take part, for example by answering an advertisement or an online invitation; also called volunteer sampling.

An interview based on a guide of planned questions in which the interviewer can change the order and ask follow-up questions to explore answers in depth.

A sampling technique in which initial participants recruit further participants from their own contacts, used to reach hidden or hard-to-reach populations.

The tendency of participants to give answers or behave in ways that they think will be seen favourably by others rather than in ways that reflect what they really think or do.

A sampling technique in which the target population is divided into subgroups, such as age bands, and participants are randomly selected from each subgroup in proportion to its size in the population.

An interview in which every participant is asked the same questions in the same order, with no follow-up questions.

The whole group of people that a researcher wants to draw conclusions about and from which the sample is selected.

A detailed account of a study's participants, setting, context and procedure, which allows readers to judge whether qualitative findings can be transferred to other contexts.

The extent to which the findings of a qualitative study can be applied to other people, settings or contexts, judged by readers from a detailed description of the original study.

An experiment in which the researcher manipulates the independent variable and allocates participants to conditions at random, which allows a cause-and-effect conclusion.

The overall quality of qualitative research, judged by its credibility, transferability, dependability (consistency of the research process) and confirmability (findings shaped by the data rather than the researcher).

An interview with no fixed list of questions, which develops like a conversation around a general topic and follows the participant's answers.