The Digital Society glossary

A person's position in relation to disability, including physical, sensory, intellectual, cognitive and mental health conditions, and how far the surrounding environment, including digital systems, enables or restricts their participation.

An evaluation criterion that asks whether the people and communities affected by an intervention see it as acceptable, including whether it is accountable and transparent to them.

The ability of people to obtain the health services and medicines they need, when they need them, without barriers of distance, cost, discrimination or poor quality.

The degree to which products, services, environments and digital content can be used by people with the widest possible range of abilities, including people with visual, hearing, motor and cognitive impairments.

Action taken by individuals or groups to bring about political or social change, such as campaigning, protesting, organising boycotts or raising awareness.

A component that turns a control signal into physical action, such as a motor that turns a wheel, a hydraulic cylinder that lifts an arm or a speaker that produces sound.

Adjusting to new conditions in order to survive or keep working, usually by a person, organisation or community responding to a change it did not start.

An approach in which software uses data about a learner's responses to adjust the content, difficulty and pace of what it presents next.

Making a three-dimensional object by building it up layer by layer from a digital design file, commonly called 3D printing.

A population in which the share of older people, usually those aged 65 and over, is rising because of longer life expectancy and lower birth rates.

The capacity of individuals or groups to act independently and make their own choices, even within structures that limit what they can do.

The laws, regulations, standards, policies and institutions that guide and limit how AI systems are developed, deployed and used, at company, national and international levels.

An output from a generative AI system that is presented as fact but is false, invented or not supported by its sources, such as a made-up citation or legal case.

A period in which interest, funding and research in AI fall sharply after the technology fails to meet inflated expectations, as happened in about 1974 to 1980 and 1987 to the early 1990s.

A finite, ordered set of clear instructions that takes some input and produces an output, in order to solve a specific problem or perform a specific task.

The obligation of organisations that design or use algorithms to take responsibility for their outcomes, explain how decisions were reached, allow people to challenge them and correct any harm caused.

Systematic and repeatable errors in an algorithm's outputs that create unfair outcomes for particular people or groups, arising from its data, its design or the way it is used.

A measure of the resources, mainly the number of steps (time) and the amount of memory, that an algorithm uses to produce its output, especially as the amount of input data grows.

The aim that an algorithm's outcomes treat people and groups justly; there are several competing definitions, such as equal error rates or equal accuracy, which often cannot all be met at once.

The use of algorithms and data to assign, monitor, evaluate and discipline workers, for example by allocating jobs, setting pay per task and deactivating accounts with low ratings.

Openness about the fact that an algorithm is used, what data it uses, how it works and how its outputs are applied, so that affected people and independent reviewers can understand and scrutinise it.

A way of representing data with continuous physical quantities or signals that can take any value within a range, such as the groove of a vinyl record or the grains of photographic film.

The state of acting or communicating without one's identity being known or traceable by others.

Processing a dataset to remove or alter personally identifiable information so that individuals can no longer be identified, directly or indirectly, by any reasonably likely means.

The attribution of human characteristics, emotions or intentions to non-human things, such as animals, objects, robots or software.

Laws that protect competition in markets by banning cartels, blocking harmful mergers and stopping dominant companies from abusing their position. In the EU it is usually called competition law.

Programs that let users carry out specific tasks, such as writing documents, editing photos, browsing the web or playing games; on mobile devices these are usually called apps.

The part of the CPU that performs calculations, such as addition and comparison, and logical decisions.

The first large packet-switched computer network, funded by the US Department of Defense and first operating in 1969, which developed many of the technologies on which the internet is built.

A proposed form of AI that would match or exceed human ability across almost any intellectual task, transferring knowledge between areas and reasoning about new situations. It does not exist today.

The ability of a digital system to perform tasks that normally need human intelligence, such as recognising patterns, understanding language, making decisions or creating content, often by learning from data rather than following only fixed rules.

A machine learning model made of layers of connected nodes, in which each connection has a weight that is adjusted during training so that the network learns to map inputs to the correct outputs.

The creation of new artistic forms, techniques, styles or ideas, often by using new technologies or by combining existing forms in new ways.

Any device, software or system that maintains or improves the functioning and independence of a person with a disability, such as wheelchairs, hearing aids, screen readers, communication apps and prosthetics.

An algorithm that finds relationships between items, such as products often bought together or videos watched by similar users; the basis of many recommendation systems.

An economic system in which human attention is treated as a scarce resource that platforms compete to capture and sell, usually to advertisers, so that time and engagement become the main measures of success.

Technology that adds digital objects or information on top of a live view of the real world, usually through a smartphone camera or smart glasses.

The process of checking that a user or device really is who or what it claims to be, using evidence such as a password, a code on a phone or a fingerprint.

The use of machines, software or robots to carry out tasks that people previously did, with little or no human involvement.

The tendency to over-rely on the output of an automated system, accepting its decisions or recommendations even when other information suggests they are wrong.

A self-operating machine that performs a fixed sequence of actions, usually driven by springs, weights, water or cams, often built to imitate a person or animal.

A digital system that can carry out tasks and make decisions in response to its environment without continuous human direction, whether or not it has a physical body that moves.

A vehicle that uses sensors, software and actuators to perceive its surroundings and drive itself, with the human role ranging from close supervision to none depending on its level of automation.

The degree to which a system can sense, decide and act on its own, without real-time human direction, within a given environment and set of tasks.

A graphical representation of a user in a digital environment, such as a character in a game, a figure in a chat app or a 3D body in virtual reality.

The maximum rate at which data can be transferred over a network connection, measured in bits per second (for example, megabits per second).

A one-sided tendency in a source or a person that favours some views, groups or outcomes over others, often because of who made the source and why.

Datasets so large, varied and fast-changing that they cannot be stored, processed or analysed with traditional tools, and need specialised systems to extract useful information.

The small group of very large technology companies, usually Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, Meta and Microsoft, that dominate many digital markets and hold great economic and political influence.

A number system that uses only the digits 0 and 1, used by digital systems to represent all data and instructions.

A searching algorithm for sorted lists that checks the middle item and discards the half that cannot contain the target, repeating until the item is found; each step halves the search.

The variety of living things in a place or on Earth as a whole, including the diversity of species, the genetic diversity within species and the diversity of ecosystems.

Attempts by individuals, often outside medical institutions, to change or enhance their own bodies or biology, for example by implanting devices, self-tracking intensively, taking supplements or experimenting with genetic techniques.

The measurement of unique physical or behavioural characteristics, such as fingerprints, iris patterns, facial features or voice, to identify or verify a person automatically.

A form of 3D printing that builds living tissue layer by layer from a bioink containing living cells, with the long-term aim of producing tissues and organs for repair, research and transplantation.

A binary digit, the smallest unit of digital data, with a value of either 0 or 1.

An algorithm whose inner workings cannot be seen or understood by the people affected by it, either because it is kept secret or because, like a large neural network, it is too complex to explain.

A mode of education that combines face-to-face teaching with online learning, with some control for the learner over the time, place or pace of the online part.

A digital record of transactions stored as a chain of linked blocks and copied across many computers, in which each block contains the hash of the previous one so that past entries cannot be changed without detection.

A website of regularly updated written entries, called posts, usually shown with the newest first and often written by one person or a small group.

A network of computers or other connected devices infected with malware and controlled remotely by an attacker, often used for denial-of-service attacks or spam.

A system that records signals from the brain and translates them into commands for an external device, such as a computer cursor, a robotic arm or a speech synthesiser.

A group of eight bits, which can represent 256 different values and is the basic unit for measuring digital storage.

The total amount of greenhouse gases released, directly and indirectly, by a product, activity, person or organisation, usually expressed in kilograms or tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e).

Scheduling computing work for times and places where the electricity supply has lower carbon emissions, so that the same work causes fewer emissions.

A failure in one part of an interdependent system that triggers failures in other parts, which in turn trigger further failures, so that the damage spreads well beyond the original fault.

An economy in which most payments are made electronically, by card, phone, app or transfer, and physical cash is rarely used.

A diagram that shows cause-and-effect links between the elements of a system with arrows, and marks each feedback loop as reinforcing (R) or balancing (B).

The suppression, removal or blocking of media content by a government, platform or other authority that judges it unacceptable.

The main processor of a computer, which fetches, decodes and executes program instructions and controls the other components.

A pressing, complex issue with far-reaching impacts and implications for large numbers of people. Challenges are widespread and persistent, often cross national borders and generations, and are intertwined with digital systems.

The evolution, transformation, adaptation or movement of something, such as a technology, practice, organisation, belief or value, from one form, state or value to another over time.

An agreed table that matches each number to a character, so that text can be stored in binary; ASCII covers 128 characters and Unicode more than 150,000.

A computer program that holds a conversation with users in text or speech. Early chatbots such as ELIZA followed scripted rules; modern ones such as ChatGPT are built on large language models.

The discouragement of lawful expression or activity across a population because people fear surveillance, punishment or harassment, even when no one has acted against them directly.

An economic model that aims to keep products and materials in use for as long as possible through durable design, repair, reuse, remanufacturing and recycling, instead of the linear model of take, make and dispose.

The gathering, reporting and sharing of news by members of the public rather than professional journalists, usually with smartphones and social media.

Scientific research in which members of the public take part, for example by collecting observations, classifying data or analysing results, usually in partnership with professional scientists.

Digital tools and platforms designed to improve the relationship between citizens and government, for example by publishing public information, collecting petitions, enabling consultation or tracking how promises are kept.

Organised armed violence within a single state, between the government and one or more non-state groups or between such groups, often linked to disputes over power, territory, identity or resources.

A statement put forward as true, which should be supported by evidence.

An algorithm that places each item into one of several categories, such as spam or not spam, or a normal or suspicious payment.

A device or program that requests data or services from a server across a network, such as a web browser asking a web server for a page.

A network in which central computers (servers) store data and provide services, and other devices (clients) send requests to them and receive responses.

Actions that reduce the harm caused by climate change that is already happening or expected, such as flood defences, heat-resistant crops and early warning systems.

Long-term change in average temperatures and weather patterns; the current warming is caused mainly by human emissions of greenhouse gases from burning fossil fuels, farming and deforestation.

Actions that reduce the causes of climate change, by cutting greenhouse gas emissions or increasing the removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.

The number of processing cycles a CPU completes each second, measured in gigahertz; 3 GHz means three billion cycles a second.

The delivery of computing resources such as storage, processing and software as a service over a network, from remote data centres, so that users do not need to own or manage the hardware themselves.

A written set of principles and standards of conduct adopted by a profession or organisation to guide its members' decisions, such as the ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct for computing professionals.

Writing instructions for a computer in a programming language, following that language's rules, so that the computer can carry out a task.

A field of robotics that designs robots with human- or animal-like cognitive abilities, such as perception, learning, reasoning and planning, so that they can act intelligently in complex and changing environments.

A robot designed to work safely alongside people in a shared workspace, using sensors and limited force and speed so that it stops or slows when it touches a person.

Negotiation between an employer and an organisation representing workers, such as a trade union, to agree pay, working conditions and other terms for all the workers covered.

A text-based interface in which the user types commands for the computer to carry out.

The recognition that all people share basic needs, rights, emotions and vulnerabilities, whatever their nationality, culture or other group membership.

A program that translates the whole of a program's source code into machine code before it is run, producing a file that can be executed without the source code.

The use of algorithms, automation and big data, such as bots, fake accounts and targeted advertising, to spread propaganda on digital platforms.

A programmable machine that automatically executes sets of instructions to input, process, store and output data.

A name for the period since the mid-20th century in which electronic computers became central to work and daily life; it emphasises the machine rather than networks, data or people.

Malicious code that attaches itself to a legitimate program or file and spreads when that file is run or shared, often damaging data or systems.

A field of AI that enables computers to identify and interpret the content of images and video, such as objects, people, text and movement.

Malicious software that copies itself and spreads across networks on its own, by exploiting security weaknesses, without needing a user to open a file.

A powerful, pervasive and debatable idea, such as change, identity or power, that gives insight into an inquiry by acting as a lens on a real-world example.

A decision point in an algorithm that checks whether a condition is true and chooses which instructions to carry out next, usually written as IF... THEN... ELSE.

Minerals mined in conflict zones and sold in ways that fund armed groups, prolong violence or involve human rights abuses; the term usually refers to tin, tantalum, tungsten and gold.

A family of ethical frameworks that judge an action only by its results, so the right action is the one with the best overall consequences. Utilitarianism is the best-known form.

Software that blocks access to online content matching set rules, such as keywords, website categories or image analysis, used by schools, employers, parents and governments.

The monitoring of user-generated content on a platform and the removal, labelling, demotion or restriction of content that breaks the platform's rules or the law.

An area of life, such as cultural, economic, environmental, health, human knowledge, political or social, that situates an inquiry by showing where and for whom a digital system matters.

The merging of several distinct audiences, such as family, friends, teachers and employers, into one audience on social media, which makes it hard to present the identity that suits each of them.

The persistence of established practices, ideas, structures or values through a period of change, such as the QWERTY keyboard layout surviving on touchscreens.

A licensing method that lets anyone use, modify and share a work, on the condition that any modified version is shared under the same free licence.

The exclusive legal right of the creator of an original work to control how it is copied, shared, adapted and performed, for a period set by law.

Checking a source against other, independent sources to see whether they confirm, contradict or qualify its claims, as a test of its reliability.

An evaluation criterion that weighs the financial, social, cultural and environmental costs of an intervention against its benefits, and asks for whom the costs fall.

A claim that opposes, challenges or qualifies another claim.

A non-profit organisation, and the set of free licences it publishes, that let creators state in advance how others may reuse their work, for example with credit, without changes or only non-commercially.

Collecting reports about a crisis, often from the public by text message, social media or apps, and placing them on a live digital map so that responders, journalists and communities can see where help or attention is needed.

Minerals that are essential to important technologies, such as electronics, batteries and renewable energy, and whose supply is at risk because production is concentrated in a few countries or is hard to increase quickly.

Paid work offered through an online platform to a large, open group of workers, any of whom can take it on.

Obtaining ideas, labour, data or funding from a large and often anonymous group of people, usually through an online platform, rather than from a small group of employees or experts.

A digital currency that uses cryptography to secure transactions and usually a blockchain to record ownership, without a central bank or company in control.

The worldwide spread and mixing of ideas, values, media and practices, so that cultures in different places become more connected and influence each other.

The objects, places, traditions, languages and knowledge that a community inherits from past generations, values and wishes to pass on. It can be tangible, such as buildings and artefacts, or intangible, such as songs, rituals, skills and languages.

The process by which local cultures become more alike, and lose distinctive features, as a small number of dominant cultural products and practices spread across the world.

The shared beliefs, values, practices, customs, languages, arts and objects that a group of people creates and passes on, and through which its members understand themselves and each other.

Repeated, intentional hurtful behaviour carried out through digital systems, such as messaging, social media or games, usually among people who know each other, especially children and young people.

Criminal activity that uses computers or networks, either to attack digital systems directly or to commit traditional crimes such as fraud, theft and extortion.

The study of control and communication in machines and living things, based on feedback loops in which a system senses the effects of its actions and adjusts its behaviour. It was named by Norbert Wiener in 1948.

The interconnected virtual environment created by computer networks, especially the internet, often imagined as a single space separate from the physical world.

The use of cyberattacks by non-state groups to cause serious harm, such as loss of life or damage to critical infrastructure, in order to spread fear and achieve political aims.

The use of cyberattacks by a state, or groups acting for it, to damage, disrupt or spy on another state's computer systems, infrastructure or information as part of a conflict.

A user interface design that deliberately manipulates or deceives users into choices that benefit the company rather than themselves, such as agreeing to data collection or a subscription that is hard to cancel.

A part of the deep web that is deliberately hidden and can only be accessed with special software such as Tor, which conceals the identity and location of users and sites.

Raw facts, figures, symbols or observations that have been recorded but not yet organised or interpreted, such as a list of readings from a temperature sensor.

The process of examining data, often with software and algorithms, to find patterns, draw conclusions and support decisions.

A systematic error in data, caused by how it was collected, selected or recorded, that makes it unrepresentative of the reality or population it is meant to describe.

A company that collects personal data from many sources, such as public records, purchases and online tracking, combines it into profiles and sells them to other organisations.

A building or group of buildings that houses large numbers of servers, storage systems and network equipment, together with the power supplies and cooling systems needed to keep them running continuously.

Encoding data using fewer bits than the original, so that it takes less storage and less time and bandwidth to send.

Permanently removing data from a storage device so that it cannot be recovered, by overwriting it, destroying the encryption key that protects it, or physically destroying the device.

The accuracy, completeness and consistency of data throughout its life cycle, protected from unauthorised or accidental change.

The sequence of stages data passes through, from creation or collection through storage, processing, analysis and access, to preservation and reuse.

A legal requirement that data about a country's citizens or activities be stored, and sometimes processed, on servers located inside that country.

Hiding sensitive parts of a dataset by replacing real values with altered, scrambled or realistic but fake values, so the data can be used without exposing the original information.

The legal rights and practical control a person or organisation has over data, including the right to decide how it is collected, used, shared and deleted.

The right of individuals to control how information about them is collected, used, stored and shared, and the practices that protect that right.

A law that sets rules for how organisations collect, store, use and share personal data, and gives individuals rights over their data, such as the right to see it, correct it or have it deleted.

The extent to which data is accurate, consistent and from a trustworthy source, so that it can be depended on.

The measures used to protect data from unauthorised access, alteration, theft or loss, so that it stays confidential, accurate and available.

The representation of data in a visual form, such as a chart, map or interactive dashboard, so that patterns and relationships can be seen and understood quickly.

An organised, structured collection of data stored electronically, usually managed by software that allows users to search, add, update and delete the data.

Rules about what may be shown or said in media, especially to audiences that may include children, covering sexual content, violence and strong language.

Work that is productive and pays a fair income, with security in the workplace, social protection, freedom to organise and be heard, and equal treatment, as defined by the International Labour Organization.

A form of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks with many hidden layers to learn complex patterns directly from large amounts of raw data such as images, audio or text.

The parts of the web that search engines do not index, such as private accounts, databases and pages behind logins.

Synthetic video, audio or images, generated with machine learning, that realistically show a real person saying or doing something they did not say or do.

A form of democracy in which decisions are shaped by informed, reasoned discussion among citizens and their representatives, aiming at shared understanding or consensus, in addition to voting.

Changes that electricity customers make to when or how much they use power, in response to prices, payments or signals from the grid operator, so that demand better matches available supply.

An attack that overwhelms a server, website or network with traffic or requests so that it cannot serve legitimate users; a distributed attack (DDoS) uses many devices at once.

An ethical framework, associated with Immanuel Kant, that judges actions by whether they respect moral duties and rules, such as honesty or respect for persons, rather than by their consequences.

A theory developed by Everett Rogers in 1962 that explains how, why and how fast new ideas and technologies spread through a population, dividing adopters into innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards.

A way of representing data with discrete signals that take only a finite set of values, usually encoded as binary digits.

A pattern of compulsive use of digital media or devices that the user struggles to control and that continues despite harm to their health, relationships or daily life.

An organised collection of digital records, either digitized from analogue originals or born digital, that is stored, described and managed so that people can find and use it over the long term.

The use of digital systems by governments to monitor, control and repress their populations, for example through mass surveillance, censorship, disinformation and internet shutdowns.

A boundary in virtual space, usually linked to a physical territory, where access to content, services or data changes because of the location of a user, a server or the data itself.

The gap between individuals, groups or countries in access to digital systems, in the skills and motivation to use them, and in the benefits they gain from that use.

The branch of ethics that examines the moral questions raised by the design, use and governance of digital systems, such as privacy, fairness, accountability and the treatment of users.

The record of data a person leaves through their use of digital systems, including what they share on purpose (an active footprint) and what is collected about them, often without their awareness (a passive footprint), such as location data and browsing history.

Cultural and scientific resources that are created in digital form or converted into it, such as 3D scans of monuments, digitized archives and born-digital works, and that are worth preserving for future generations.

The information about a person, group or organisation that exists in digital systems, including both the identity they present online and the attributes and credentials that systems use to recognise and verify them.

Ensuring that all people and communities, including those disadvantaged by disability, poverty, age, location or language, have affordable access to digital systems, the skills to use them and services designed for them.

The skills needed to find, evaluate, create and communicate information safely and effectively using digital technologies.

A European Union law, applied from 2023, that names the largest platforms as gatekeepers and sets them rules in advance, such as bans on self-preferencing, with fines of up to 10% of worldwide turnover.

Content such as text, images, audio, video, animation and games that is encoded as digital data, so it can be created, stored, edited, copied and distributed with computers and networks.

A person who has grown up surrounded by digital technologies such as the internet, mobile phones and social media; the term, popularised by Marc Prensky in 2001, is criticised because digital skills vary widely within the same generation.

A person who works remotely using digital systems while travelling or living in different places, often in other countries, for months or years at a time.

The study and practice of teaching approaches that use digital technologies to support learning, chosen for how they help students learn rather than for the technology itself.

The policies and actions that keep digital material accessible and usable over the long term, despite failing storage, changing hardware and software, and obsolete file formats.

A digital record linked to a physical product, often through a QR code, that stores information about its materials, origin, environmental footprint, repair and recycling, so that consumers, repairers and recyclers can use it.

Copying content from its original format, such as paper, microfilm or magnetic tape, into a digital format, so that it can be preserved and accessed without handling the original.

Human rights as they apply to the use of digital systems, such as privacy, free expression and non-discrimination online, together with related claims such as access to the internet and control over personal data.

Technology that restricts how digital content can be copied, shared, played or transferred, used by publishers to enforce copyright and licence terms.

A contested term for contemporary life in which digital systems are part of how people communicate, work, learn, govern and form communities, and in which analogue processes and objects are increasingly turned into digital forms. Because experiences differ so much between places and groups, there may be many digital societies rather than one.

The ability of a state or region to control the digital systems, data and infrastructure used within its territory, and to make and enforce its own rules for them.

Telling a story with digital tools and media, often combining text, image, sound and video, and sometimes letting the audience shape or add to the story.

A technology, application or platform that creates, stores, processes or distributes digital data and information, such as a smartphone, a gaming platform, an AI-enabled personal assistant or a robot.

Very deep digitalization that changes an organisation's purpose, business model or a whole industry, rather than only its processes.

A virtual model of a real object, system or person that is continuously updated with data from its real counterpart, so that its behaviour can be monitored, simulated or predicted.

A state in which a person's use of digital technology supports, rather than harms, their physical and mental health, relationships and goals; the term is also used for tools and practices that aim to achieve this.

The use of digital systems to change the structure and/or operation of an organisation, for example its processes, services, roles or business model.

The conversion of analogue data and information, such as text on paper, film photographs or sound recordings, into digital form. It changes the form of information, not how an organisation works.

A model that arranges data, information, knowledge and wisdom in four layers, each built from the one beneath it and adding context, meaning and judgement.

A break with established ways of understanding or doing things, after which the old way no longer works or is abandoned.

Treating a person or group less favourably than others because of a characteristic such as sex, race, ethnicity, disability, religion or age. It can be direct (an explicit rule) or indirect (a rule that looks neutral but disadvantages one group in practice).

False information that is created or shared deliberately to deceive people, for political, financial or personal gain.

A significant change, often driven by digital systems, that upsets the established organisations, jobs, markets or practices of a sector, creating new winners and losers.

A new approach, often simpler or cheaper at first, that reaches people ignored by existing providers and eventually changes how a whole field works, such as mobile money for people without bank accounts.

A human-readable name, such as unicef.org, registered by an organisation or person and linked to the IP addresses of its servers.

The distributed system of servers that translates domain names into IP addresses so that devices can find each other on the internet.

An aircraft with no pilot on board, controlled remotely by a person, autonomously by onboard software, or by a combination of the two.

Buying and selling goods and services over the internet, including sales from businesses to consumers, between businesses and between consumers.

The use of digital systems by governments to deliver public services, share information and interact with citizens and businesses, for example through online tax returns, digital identity cards and public service portals.

Learning delivered or supported through electronic devices and digital networks, such as online courses, educational apps and virtual classrooms.

Organised competitive video gaming in which professional or amateur players and teams compete in leagues and tournaments, often in front of live and online audiences.

Buying and selling financial assets such as shares, currencies, bonds or cryptocurrencies through electronic platforms instead of by phone or on a trading floor.

The use of electronic systems to cast or count votes, including electronic voting machines at polling stations and remote internet voting from a voter's own device.

Discarded products that have a plug or battery, such as phones, computers, televisions, cables and household appliances, which often contain both valuable metals and hazardous substances.

A person or organisation among the first to take up an innovation after the innovators, often respected by others and therefore influential in its wider spread.

An integrated system that detects or forecasts a hazard, assesses the risk and sends timely warnings to people in danger so that they can act to reduce harm.

An environment, online or offline, in which people mainly meet views that repeat and reinforce their own, because they choose like-minded sources and contacts.

The arrangement of a society into layers of people with unequal income, wealth and opportunities, in which people's position tends to persist over their lives and across generations.

A community of living organisms interacting with each other and with their physical environment, such as a rainforest, a coral reef or a wetland.

A digital record of a person's health history, such as diagnoses, medicines, test results and vaccinations, that authorised clinicians can access and update, often across different hospitals and clinics.

Any part of a system that can be identified on its own, whether physical (a server), digital (code or data) or human (a user, designer or regulator).

A computer built into a larger device to perform one dedicated function, usually with fixed software, such as the controller in a washing machine, a car's brakes or a pacemaker.

The appearance of properties or patterns in a system as a whole that arise from interactions between its elements and cannot be found in, or easily predicted from, any single element.

A process through which people or groups gain more control over their own lives and more ability to influence decisions that affect them, for example by gaining access to information, tools or networks.

Converting readable data (plaintext) into an unreadable form (ciphertext) using an algorithm and a key, so that only someone with the correct key can convert it back.

Encryption in which data is encrypted on the sender's device and can only be decrypted on the recipient's device, so that no one in between, including the service provider, can read it.

A type of intervention that strengthens positive or effective aspects of a situation that already exist, such as a service that makes sending remittances cheaper.

An evaluation criterion that asks whether an intervention fairly addresses the needs, claims and interests of the specific people and communities affected, considering fairness, inclusion and reciprocity.

The design of tools, workplaces and systems to fit the human body and mind, so that people can use them safely, comfortably and efficiently.

A systematic approach to deciding what is right, based on a central principle such as maximising good outcomes, following duties or respecting rights, which can be applied to new situations.

The systematic study of what is right and wrong, good and bad, and of the reasons for those judgements; also, a set of principles that guides the conduct of a person, group or profession.

An ethical framework, developed by thinkers such as Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, that places relationships and responsibility for others, especially vulnerable or dependent people, at the centre of moral decisions.

Gradual, step-by-step change in which each version builds on the one before, such as yearly improvements to smartphone cameras and batteries.

A wearable frame, powered by motors or using passive springs, that supports or adds strength to the body's movement, used in rehabilitation, by people with paralysis and by workers doing heavy or repetitive tasks.

AI systems, or methods applied to them, that make the reasons for an output understandable to humans, so that decisions can be checked, challenged and trusted.

The act, process or product of representing ideas, emotions or experiences in a form that others can perceive, using one or more modes and media.

An umbrella term for all technologies that combine or replace the real world with digital content, including augmented, mixed and virtual reality.

The use of AI to detect a human face in an image and identify or verify the person by comparing measurements of their facial features with stored records.

The process of checking whether claims in media are accurate, by tracing them to original sources and comparing them with reliable evidence, often carried out by specialist organisations.

A legal exception in US copyright law that allows limited use of copyrighted work without permission for purposes such as criticism, commentary, news reporting, teaching and parody.

A community of fans of a particular artist, work, sport or franchise who share their enthusiasm and often create and organise activities together, such as fan art, fan fiction, events and campaigns.

A persistent worry that others are having rewarding experiences that one is missing, which can drive people to keep checking social media to stay connected.

An evaluation criterion that asks whether an intervention is technically, socially and politically possible to carry out and sustain, and what current or emerging barriers stand in its way.

A characteristic of an algorithm: it can actually be carried out with the time, computing power, memory and data available.

A chain of cause and effect in which the output of a system returns as an input and changes the system's later behaviour.

One column of a database table, holding one attribute that every record has, such as a name or a date of birth.

A situation in which personalisation algorithms show people mainly content that matches their existing interests and views, so they encounter fewer different perspectives.

An algorithm that removes items that do not meet given criteria and keeps those that do, such as hiding emails marked as spam or search results above a price limit.

A characteristic of an algorithm: it always stops after a limited number of steps, with a clear end condition, rather than running forever.

Hardware or software that checks network traffic against a set of security rules and blocks traffic that is not permitted, separating a trusted network from untrusted ones.

Software stored permanently in a device's ROM or flash memory that controls its basic functions, such as starting a computer and loading the operating system.

A form of blended learning in which students study new content at home, usually through short videos, and use class time for practice, discussion and support from the teacher.

A diagram that represents an algorithm with standard shapes joined by arrows: ovals for start and end, parallelograms for input and output, rectangles for processes and diamonds for decisions.

The movement of digital data between devices, servers and networks, including across national borders, along physical routes such as cables and through wireless links.

The condition of not having reliable access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth and an active, healthy life, whether because food is unavailable or because people cannot afford it.

Using past and present evidence, such as events, patterns and trends, to estimate what is likely to happen in the future, for example by extending trends, consulting experts or building scenarios.

A field in one database table that holds the primary key of a record in another table, creating a link (relationship) between the two tables.

Structured learning in an organised system of schools, colleges and universities that follows a set curriculum, is taught by qualified teachers and leads to recognised qualifications.

A term popularised by Klaus Schwab of the World Economic Forum in 2016 for the current period of change, in which digital, physical and biological technologies such as AI, robotics and the internet of things merge.

The right to hold opinions and to seek, receive and share information and ideas through any medium without interference from the state, subject only to limits set by law that are necessary to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security, public order, public health or morals.

The ways in which technological, economic and social change, especially automation, artificial intelligence and digital platforms, are transforming what jobs exist, how work is organised, and the security and quality of employment.

A framework used in futures studies that shows the range of possible, plausible, probable and preferable futures widening the further ahead one looks from the present.

The systematic study of possible, probable and preferable futures, using methods such as trend analysis, expert panels and scenarios to help people prepare for and shape what may happen.

The use of game elements, such as points, badges, levels, streaks and leaderboards, in non-game activities such as learning, to increase motivation and engagement.

An organisation that controls an important point of access between businesses and users, such as a search engine or app store. Under the EU Digital Markets Act it is also a legal status given to very large platforms, which must follow extra rules.

The state in which people of all genders have equal rights, responsibilities, opportunities and treatment, so that a person's gender does not limit their life chances.

The ways a person shows their gender to others, for example through clothing, hairstyle, voice, behaviour, name and pronouns, which may or may not match social expectations for their sex or gender identity.

The European Union's data protection law, in force since May 2018, which sets rules for handling the personal data of people in the EU and gives them rights such as access and erasure.

The ability of a trained machine learning model to make accurate predictions on new, unseen data, not only on the examples it was trained on.

Differences in values, behaviour and experience between people of different generations, which in a digital society often appear as differences in how, how much and why they use digital systems.

Stages in the history of computers, each marked by a major change in the underlying technology: vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits, microprocessors and artificial intelligence.

AI that produces new content, such as text, images, music, video or code, by learning the patterns in very large amounts of existing content and generating new examples in response to a prompt.

Restricting access to online content or services according to the user's geographic location, usually detected from the IP address of their device.

Setting up a virtual boundary around a real-world area so that a digital system responds, for example by sending an alert or blocking an action, when a device enters, leaves or stays in that area.

A computer system for capturing, storing, analysing and displaying data linked to locations on the Earth's surface, usually as layers on a map that share the same coordinates.

A labour market in which people are paid per task or gig, such as a ride or a delivery, usually found through a digital platform, instead of receiving a regular wage from one employer.

A US-owned satellite navigation system in which receivers calculate their position on Earth by measuring the time taken for signals to arrive from several satellites.

Buying goods, parts, materials or services from suppliers in whichever countries offer the best combination of cost, quality and speed, often coordinated through digital supply-chain systems.

The growing interconnection of economies, cultures and societies across the world through trade, investment, the movement of people and the flow of data.

The processes, rules and institutions through which decisions are made and authority is exercised over a community, including the roles of governments, companies, international organisations and civil society.

An interface in which users interact with visual elements, such as windows, icons, menus and buttons, using a pointer or touch.

A processor designed to perform many simple calculations at the same time, originally to draw images and video on a screen and now also used to train AI models.

Designing, making, using and disposing of computers and other digital systems in ways that reduce their environmental impact, for example by saving energy, using renewable power, extending device life and recycling safely.

Releases of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide that trap heat in the atmosphere; they are usually measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) so that different gases can be compared.

Making misleading or unsupported claims about the environmental benefits of a product, service or organisation, so that it appears more sustainable than it is.

A set of shared values associated with early computer hacker culture, described by Steven Levy in 1984, including free access to computers and information, distrust of central authority, and judging people by their skill rather than their status.

Gaining unauthorised access to a computer system, network or data, or using a system in ways its owner did not intend; ethical hacking does the same with permission in order to improve security.

The use of hacking for political purposes, such as defacing websites, leaking documents or launching denial-of-service attacks against governments or companies.

An interface that communicates with the user through the sense of touch, for example through vibration, force or texture, and may also detect the user's touch and movement.

The ability of a state or organisation to get what it wants through force or payment, such as military action, sanctions or economic pressure.

The physical components of a computer system, such as the processor, memory, storage, circuit boards and input and output devices.

A function that turns any input into a short, fixed-length string (a hash) that acts as a fingerprint of the data: the same input always gives the same hash, while any change to the input gives a completely different one.

A word or phrase preceded by the # symbol that labels a post, so that posts on the same topic are grouped together and can be searched for or followed.

Using a shared hashtag on social media to draw attention to a political or social cause, connect people who support it and put pressure on those with power.

Expression that attacks, insults or encourages hostility towards a person or group because of an identity characteristic such as ethnicity, religion, nationality, gender, sexuality or disability.

The continuous or regular collection of data about a person's body or behaviour, such as heart rate, sleep, steps or blood glucose, by wearable devices, apps or home sensors, usually to inform the person or their clinician.

A layer of nodes between the input and output layers of a neural network, whose values are neither the input nor the final answer; hidden layers learn features such as edges and shapes.

A programming language, such as Python or JavaScript, that uses words and structures close to human language and mathematics and must be translated into machine code to run.

The tendency of people to form ties with others who are similar to them in characteristics such as age, class, ethnicity, beliefs or interests, a pattern that recommendation systems can strengthen online.

HyperText Transfer Protocol: the protocol that browsers and web servers use to request and send web pages and other resources.

The secure version of HTTP, in which requests and responses between a browser and a web server are encrypted so that they cannot be read or altered in transit.

A simple device that connects devices in a local area network and forwards every incoming message to all other connected devices.

The use of technology, drugs or genetic methods to improve human abilities beyond what is needed to restore health, such as stronger, faster, longer-lived or more capable bodies and minds.

Rights that every person holds because they are human, whatever their nationality, sex, ethnicity, religion or other status. They are universal, inalienable and indivisible, and states have the main duty to protect them.

The study and design of how people and robots communicate, cooperate and affect each other, including trust, safety, social behaviour and the effects of robots on human users.

A model introduced by the research company Gartner in 1995 describing how expectations about a new technology rise to a peak, fall into disillusionment, and then recover to a more realistic level of use.

Text displayed on a screen that contains links (hyperlinks) to other text or resources, which the reader can follow directly.

The characteristics, roles, group memberships and records by which a person, group or organisation is recognised, both by itself and by others. It works at personal, group and institutional levels and changes over time and with context.

The fraudulent use of another person's personal information, such as their name, identity documents or bank details, to obtain money, goods or services in their name.

The process of confirming that a person is who they claim to be, by checking their claimed identity against trusted evidence such as an official document, a database record or a biometric sample.

Digital media that create a sense of being inside or interacting with a digital environment, through technologies such as augmented, virtual and mixed reality.

An effect or outcome related to a digital system, positive or negative, intended or unintended. Impacts describe what has happened or is happening.

A device placed inside the body, partly or completely, to replace, support or monitor a biological function or to add a new one, such as a pacemaker, a cochlear implant or a microchip.

An opportunity or risk associated with a digital system, often concerning what may follow for people and communities in the future. Implications overlap with and inform impacts.

A small improvement to an existing product, service or process, such as adding SMS reminders to an existing vaccination programme.

An automatically controlled, reprogrammable machine, usually a jointed arm, used in manufacturing for tasks such as welding, painting, assembly and packaging.

The uneven distribution of income, wealth, opportunities or outcomes, such as health or education, between individuals, groups or countries.

A person who uses a large or highly engaged online following to affect the opinions, behaviour or purchases of that audience, often in return for payment from brands.

A visual presentation that combines charts, images, icons and brief text to communicate information or a message quickly to a broad audience.

Learning that happens through everyday activities, conversations and media use, without a set curriculum, teacher or qualification.

Data that has been organised, processed and given context so that it has meaning for a person or a system.

A period in which the production, processing and distribution of information becomes the main source of economic value and social change; one of several names for digital society.

Agreement to the collection and use of one's data, given freely by a person who understands what data will be collected, how it will be used and who it will be shared with.

The process of turning a new idea into a product, service or method that people actually use; an invention becomes an innovation only when it is adopted.

An evaluation criterion that asks whether an intervention's approach is new or has been tried before without success, and whether it is an incremental, sustaining or disruptive innovation.

The data an algorithm starts with, which must be clearly defined, including what happens if the data is missing or invalid.

Hardware that sends data or commands into a computer, such as a keyboard, mouse, touchscreen, microphone or camera.

A simple model of a system in which inputs enter the system, processes inside it transform them, and outputs leave it.

A sustained, iterative and often collaborative process of asking questions, exploring sources and investigating evidence through which learners build and reflect on their own understanding. In digital society it moves through the stages focus, explore, investigate, and reflect and share.

Moving work to a lower-cost region of a firm's home country instead of abroad. The term is also used for work that foreign firms bring into a country.

Bringing work that had been outsourced to another company back inside the firm, to be done by its own staff.

A single step in an algorithm that tells the computer to do one thing, such as store a value, compare two numbers or display a message.

A set of electronic components, mainly transistors, made together on one small chip of semiconductor material such as silicon. First built by Jack Kilby (1958) and Robert Noyce (1959).

The extent to which users can act on a medium and change what it shows or does, for example by clicking, choosing, commenting, creating or playing, rather than only receiving it.

A type of intervention that steps into a process or trend contributing to the negative aspects of a challenge and changes it, such as a law that changes how platforms classify their workers.

A relationship in which elements of a system rely on one another to function, so that a change or failure in one affects the others.

An attitude of openness to and curiosity about other cultures, languages and perspectives, combined with a sense of responsibility towards people beyond one's own community and country.

The global network of interconnected networks that use the TCP/IP protocols to exchange data between devices.

The very high-capacity fibre-optic links and core routers, owned by major telecommunications companies, that connect the world's large networks and carry most long-distance internet traffic.

A person who becomes famous mainly through online platforms, such as video sites, social media or livestreaming services, rather than through traditional media such as television or film.

A physical location where different networks connect directly to exchange traffic, keeping local traffic local and reducing cost and delay.

The network of everyday physical objects, such as appliances, vehicles, wearables and sensors, that are connected to the internet and collect and exchange data, often without direct human involvement.

An organisation that provides people and organisations with access to the internet, usually for a fee, through fixed or mobile networks.

An intentional disruption of internet or mobile data services by a government or on its orders, making them unavailable or unusable for a specific population or area, usually to control the flow of information.

The ability of different devices, systems and applications, often made by different organisations, to exchange data and use it correctly.

A program that translates and executes source code one statement at a time, every time the program runs.

The idea that aspects of a person's identity, such as gender, race, class, religion and sexuality, combine and interact, creating specific experiences of privilege or discrimination that cannot be understood by looking at any one aspect alone.

An innovation that attempts to mitigate, intercede in, enhance or resolve an aspect of a challenge and involves digital systems in some way. It can be a device, app or platform, but also a policy, law or rule change that concerns digital systems.

A numerical label that identifies a device on a network using the Internet Protocol, so that packets can be delivered to it; IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long and IPv6 addresses 128 bits.

The core part of an operating system that controls a computer's memory, processor and hardware; software running in the kernel has full access to the machine, so an error there can crash the whole computer.

Understanding gained from information through experience, study or analysis, which allows a person to explain patterns and make predictions.

Data in which each example is tagged with the correct answer, such as an email marked spam or not spam, used to train supervised learning systems.

A deep learning model with billions of weights, trained on vast amounts of text to predict the next token in a sequence, which allows it to generate fluent text and perform many language tasks.

The time delay between data being sent and being received across a network, usually measured in milliseconds.

When a country or community skips a stage of technological development and moves directly to a newer technology, such as adopting mobile phones without first building a network of fixed telephone lines.

Software that schools and organisations use to deliver, organise and track courses, including resources, assignments, communication and grades.

A weapon that, once activated, can select and attack targets, including people, without further human intervention.

A six-level scale from 0 to 5, set out by SAE International, that describes how much of the driving task a vehicle's automated system performs, from no automation to full automation under all conditions.

A sensing method that fires pulses of laser light and measures how long they take to bounce back, building a precise three-dimensional map of nearby objects and their distances.

A method for measuring the environmental impacts of a product or service across every stage of its life, from extracting raw materials through manufacturing, transport and use to disposal or recycling.

Excessive or badly directed artificial light, such as skyglow over cities, glare and light spilling into places where it is not wanted, which disrupts ecosystems, human sleep and views of the night sky.

Content presented in a fixed order and, for broadcasts, at a fixed time chosen by its creator, so every audience member follows the same sequence.

A searching algorithm that checks each item in a list in turn, from the start, until it finds the target or reaches the end; it works on unsorted lists but is slow for large ones.

Broadcasting video and audio over the internet as events happen, so viewers can watch in real time and often interact through live chat.

Attempts by organised groups, such as companies, trade associations, unions and campaign groups, to influence the decisions of lawmakers and officials through direct contact, research, events and public campaigns.

A network that connects devices within one building or site, such as a home, school or office, usually owned and managed by one organisation.

The painful feeling that one's social relationships are fewer or less satisfying than one wants, which can occur even when a person is surrounded by others; it differs from social isolation, an objective lack of contact.

A component of an algorithm that repeats a block of instructions, either for each item in a collection, a set number of times, or while a condition remains true.

Data compression that allows the original data to be rebuilt exactly, used for text, software and files where every detail matters.

Data compression that permanently discards some data, usually detail people barely notice, to make files much smaller, used for photos, music and video.

Binary instructions that a CPU can execute directly; every program must be translated into machine code before it can run.

The idea, still hypothetical, that a machine could have subjective experience or awareness, rather than only processing information and imitating conscious behaviour.

A type of AI in which an algorithm finds patterns in data and uses them to make predictions or decisions, improving its performance as it is given more examples, without being explicitly programmed for each case.

The use of cameras and image-analysis software to let a machine detect, identify, measure or locate objects so that it can make decisions and act, for example in inspection, sorting or navigation.

A large, powerful and highly reliable computer designed to process very large numbers of transactions and serve thousands of users at the same time, used by banks, airlines and governments.

Software designed to damage or disrupt a computer system, gain unauthorised access to it, or steal data from it without the owner's consent, such as viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware and spyware.

The monitoring of a whole population, or a large part of it, without individual suspicion, for example by collecting the communications data of all users of a network or scanning every face in a public place.

An online course open to unlimited numbers of participants over the internet, usually with video lectures, automated assessment and online discussion, and often free to join.

The main ideas and claims of a source, and the techniques it uses to make them (words, images, data, graphics, design), including how its evidence was gathered.

Whether a piece of media is what it claims to be: genuine, unaltered and from the source it names, rather than edited, fabricated or taken out of context.

The concentration of media ownership in fewer, larger companies or groups, through mergers, takeovers and the closure of smaller outlets.

The merging of previously separate media forms, technologies and industries, made possible because all content can be handled as digital data on shared devices, networks and platforms.

The division of audiences across many more media sources, platforms and formats, so that fewer people share the same news and entertainment sources.

The process by which storage media, file formats, software or hardware become outdated and unsupported, so the content they hold can no longer be read or played.

Techniques that produce pictures of the inside of the body, such as X-rays, ultrasound, CT and MRI scans and retinal photographs, so that clinicians can diagnose and monitor disease without surgery.

An image, video, phrase or idea that is copied, adapted and shared rapidly between internet users, often changing slightly each time it spreads.

A state of well-being in which a person can cope with the normal stresses of life, realise their abilities, learn and work well, and contribute to their community; it includes emotional, psychological and social well-being, not only the absence of mental illness.

Data that describes other data, such as the date a file was created, its author, its size or the location where a photo was taken.

A proposed network of shared, persistent 3D virtual spaces, often reached through virtual or augmented reality, in which people interact through avatars for work, leisure and commerce.

A network that covers a town or city, connecting LANs across that area, often run by a city authority, university or telecommunications company.

A certificate that records the completion of a short, focused course in a specific skill or competency, often earned online and designed to be combined with others.

A small payment made inside a digital product, usually a game or app, for virtual items, extra features, in-game currency or chances to win random rewards.

An integrated circuit that contains a computer's central processing unit, carrying out the instructions of programs on a single chip. The first commercial one was the Intel 4004 (1971).

The use of data about individuals to divide voters into small groups and send each group a different message designed to appeal to its particular interests, fears or characteristics.

Crowd work broken into very small, repetitive online tasks, such as labelling images, often paid a few cents each, that together complete a larger job.

The movement of people from one place to another, within a country or across borders, to live there temporarily or permanently, whether by choice or because they are forced to leave.

False or misleading information that is shared by people who believe it is true, without the intention to deceive.

A type of intervention that reduces the negative aspects of a challenge, usually without removing their cause, such as cash aid for families who cannot afford food.

Research that combines qualitative methods (exploring experiences and behaviours in depth) with quantitative methods (measuring and finding patterns), so that each covers the other's weaknesses.

Technology that blends real and virtual environments so that digital objects are anchored in physical space and respond to it, and users can interact with both.

The use of portable, wirelessly connected devices, such as smartphones, tablets and wearables, to access data and services from almost any location.

A service that lets people store money in an account linked to their mobile phone number and use it to send, receive and pay, with cash paid in and taken out through local agents.

A type of sign or resource used to make meaning, such as written text, speech, image, moving image, sound or gesture. A single medium, such as a TikTok video, often combines several modes.

A simplified representation of a system, such as a diagram, map, equation or simulation, that shows selected elements and relationships in order to explain, predict or communicate how the system behaves.

A device that converts digital data into signals suited to a particular transmission line (telephone, cable, fibre or mobile) and back again, connecting a home or office to its internet provider.

Designing a product as a set of separate, standardised parts (modules) that can be removed, replaced or upgraded individually, so that a fault in one part does not end the life of the whole product.

A market in which one company is the only supplier, or so dominant that it faces little effective competition and can set prices or terms for others.

The observation, made by Gordon Moore in 1965 and revised in 1975, that the number of transistors on a chip doubles about every two years, while the cost per transistor falls.

A being that can understand right and wrong, choose how to act and be held responsible for its choices; adult humans are moral agents, while current robots and AI systems are not.

An intense, widespread public fear that something, often a new medium or technology, threatens social values or children's safety, out of proportion to the evidence of harm.

The view that moral judgements are true or false only relative to a particular culture, community or person, so that no single set of values applies to everyone. It contrasts with moral universalism, which holds that some principles apply to all people.

The beliefs and practices about right and wrong that a person or community actually holds. Ethics is the systematic study of these beliefs and the reasons behind them.

The main circuit board of a computer, which holds the processor and memory and connects every other component through circuits and sockets.

A form of change in which people, things or values shift position, location or level, such as users moving from one platform to another or a price rising or falling.

The view, proposed by Ken Goldberg, that the future of AI lies in diverse groups of humans and machines working together on problems, rather than in a single superintelligent machine replacing human intelligence.

AI designed and trained for a specific task or domain, such as recognising faces or recommending videos, which cannot transfer its ability to unrelated tasks. It is also called weak AI or domain-specific AI.

The protection of a state, its population, institutions and critical infrastructure from threats such as military attack, terrorism, espionage and cyberattacks.

Ordinary human language, such as English or Spanish, used to describe an algorithm in a form anyone can read but which can be ambiguous.

A field of AI that enables computers to analyse, understand and generate human language, as in translation, chatbots and sentiment analysis.

Any material or energy source that comes from the natural world and that people use, such as minerals, water, land, forests and fossil fuels.

Feedback that counteracts a change and pushes a system back towards a target or balance, as a thermostat or surge pricing does.

The principle that internet service providers must treat all internet traffic equally, without blocking, slowing or charging differently for particular content, applications or websites.

Two or more computers or other devices connected by a transmission medium so that they can share data, resources and services.

The increase in value of a product or service to each user as more people use it, which tends to make the largest platform in a market grow larger still.

The hardware component, now usually built into a device, that connects it to a network through a cable or by radio, and that has a unique hardware (MAC) address.

A society whose main social, economic and political structures are organised through digital information and communication networks, a term associated with Jan van Dijk and Manuel Castells.

A single processing unit in a neural network that adds up the weighted signals it receives, applies a simple function to them and passes the result on to the next layer.

Organised, intentional learning outside the formal school and university system, such as workplace training, community courses, coding bootcamps and online courses that do not lead to a full formal qualification.

A unique record on a blockchain that represents ownership of a specific item, often a digital image, video or in-game object, and cannot be swapped for another token as if they were the same.

A non-profit organisation that is independent of government and works for a social, political, humanitarian or environmental cause, for example by campaigning, providing services or monitoring governments and companies.

Content that users can access in an order or at a time of their own choosing, or whose path they shape through their choices, such as websites, games and on-demand services.

An individual or organisation that has political influence but is not part of a government, such as a multinational company, an armed group, a hacker collective, a religious organisation or a wealthy individual.

Material judged so harmful, for example terrorist attack footage or child abuse material, that law or platform rules restrict or ban it outright; New Zealand uses the term as a legal classification.

Speech or content that many people find upsetting, insulting or disrespectful; in many democracies it is legal, because freedom of expression protects speech that offends.

Moving work to another country, either to a firm's own operation abroad or to a foreign contractor.

A group of people who interact regularly through a digital platform around a shared interest, identity or purpose, and who develop shared norms, language and a sense of belonging.

The use of websites and apps to find, contact and assess possible romantic or sexual partners, usually through profiles, search filters and matching algorithms.

Hostile or threatening behaviour directed at a person through digital systems, including name-calling, threats, stalking, sexual harassment and publishing private information, which may come from strangers and need not be repeated.

The identity a person builds and displays through their online activity, such as profiles, usernames, posts and avatars, which may differ across platforms and from their offline identity.

A platform on which many independent sellers offer goods or services to buyers, with the platform handling search, payment and often delivery in return for fees.

Making research outputs, especially journal articles, freely available online to anyone, without subscription charges, often with permission to reuse them.

Teaching and learning materials in any medium that are free to access and released under an open licence, so that others can reuse, adapt and redistribute them.

Software whose source code is published under a licence that lets anyone read, use, modify and share it; the term is also used for other openly shared work.

Information gathered and analysed from publicly available sources, such as social media posts, satellite imagery, flight-tracking data and public records, to establish facts about events.

System software that manages a computer's hardware and resources, provides common services to applications and provides the user interface, such as Windows, macOS, Linux, Android or iOS.

Who made a source, when, where and why (to inform, persuade, sell or entertain), and what this suggests about its bias, value and limitations.

The result an algorithm produces from its input, such as a route, a ranking, a category or a decision.

Hardware that presents the results of processing to a user or another system, such as a screen, speaker, printer or vibration motor.

Contracting another company to carry out work that a firm used to do itself, whether in the same country or abroad.

A problem in which a machine learning model learns the details and noise of its training data so closely that it performs poorly on new data.

A situation in which the number of visitors to a place is so high that it damages the quality of life of residents, the environment or the experience of visitors themselves.

A small unit of data sent across a network, containing part of a message and a header with the source and destination addresses and a sequence number.

A method of sending data in which a message is split into packets that travel independently, possibly by different routes, and are reassembled at the destination.

A one-sided relationship in which a person feels they know and are close to a media figure, such as a streamer, influencer or celebrity, who does not know them personally.

The 2015 international climate treaty under which countries set their own emissions targets (nationally determined contributions), report on progress and review collective progress every five years, with the aim of keeping global warming well below 2 °C.

The activities through which citizens take part in or influence government and public decisions, such as voting, standing for office, petitioning, protesting and responding to consultations.

A culture in which ordinary people do not only consume media but also create and share their own, with low barriers to taking part and support from a community of other creators.

The automated identification of regularities in data, such as shapes in images, sequences in sound or trends in numbers, so that new data can be classified or predicted.

Activities that aim to prevent violent conflict, end it or stop it from returning, by addressing its causes, rebuilding trust between groups and strengthening institutions that settle disputes peacefully.

The process in which experts in a field evaluate a research paper's methods, evidence and conclusions before it is published, to judge its quality and validity.

A network in which devices share data and resources directly with each other, each acting as both client and server, without depending on a central server.

The individuals and groups affected by digital systems, including users, developers, workers and people who face barriers to access, who often make different claims and support different courses of action.

A constructed character or public image that a person or organisation adopts for a particular audience, such as a VTuber's animated character or a computer-generated influencer.

A network that connects devices around one person over a few metres, such as a phone, a smartwatch and wireless earbuds linked by Bluetooth.

A general-purpose computer intended to be used by one person at a time, such as a desktop or laptop.

Adapting the content of marketing, such as the products shown, offers, prices and messages, to each individual, based on data about that person.

Any data that can be used to identify a particular individual, either directly, such as a name or ID number, or indirectly when combined with other data, such as date of birth, postcode and gender.

The point of view from which a person or group sees an issue, shaped by their position, interests, values and experiences.

Digital systems deliberately designed to change users' attitudes or behaviour, for example through notifications, streaks, rewards, autoplay and infinite scrolling.

A form of social engineering that uses fake messages or websites imitating trusted organisations to trick people into revealing passwords, financial details or other sensitive information.

The material world of land, bodies, buildings, roads and objects, in which location and distance can be measured.

A specific location that people have given meaning to through experience, use, memory or identity, such as a home, a school, a city or a long-running online community.

Designing or managing a product so that it becomes outdated, stops working or seems unfashionable after a limited time, which encourages people to replace it sooner.

A digital platform, such as a delivery or ride-hailing app, that is owned and governed democratically by its workers or users rather than by investors.

Economic activity organised through digital platforms that match buyers and sellers of goods, services or labour, with the platform company setting the rules and taking a commission or fee.

The influence a digital platform gains by sitting between large groups of users, such as buyers and sellers or users and advertisers, and controlling the rules, data and algorithms that govern how they connect.

A series of audio episodes published online that listeners can stream or download and subscribe to, so they listen when they choose rather than to a broadcast schedule.

Organised activity by candidates, parties or groups to persuade people to support them, to vote or to back a cause, through speeches, advertisements, events, canvassing and online content.

Any activity by which people try to influence who governs or what governments and other powerful organisations decide, from voting and joining a party to signing petitions, protesting and campaigning online.

The growing distance between political groups, both in their views and in how much they dislike and distrust each other.

Expression about government, politics, elections and public issues, including criticism of officials and policies. It is protected by Article 19 of the UDHR and receives especially strong protection in many legal systems.

Measuring and recording the amount, type and location of pollutants or waste over time, for example with sensors, satellites or reporting systems, so that sources can be identified and action taken.

The forms of entertainment, media, fashion, music and everyday practice that are widely enjoyed and shared by large numbers of people at a particular time.

The change in the size of a population over time, resulting from the balance of births and deaths and of people moving in and out.

Feedback that amplifies a change, so that the system moves further in the same direction; 'positive' describes the direction of the loop, not whether the outcome is good.

Learning that adults undertake after completing their initial formal education, such as professional development, retraining and learning for personal interest, often in non-formal or informal settings.

A society in which most employment and wealth come from services and knowledge rather than from manufacturing, a term associated with the sociologist Daniel Bell (1973).

Encryption methods designed to stay secure even against attacks by future large quantum computers.

The capacity of a person or group to influence or control the actions, choices or beliefs of others, whether by force, rules, rewards, persuasion or by shaping the options available to them.

The component that converts electricity from the mains or a battery into the steady, low-voltage direct current that a computer's parts need.

A measure of a data centre's energy efficiency, found by dividing the total energy the facility uses by the energy used by its computing equipment; a value of 1.0 would mean no energy is used for cooling or other overheads.

A farming approach that uses GPS, sensors, satellite or drone images and data analysis to measure differences within fields and apply water, seed, fertiliser and pesticides only where and when they are needed.

The use of statistical models and algorithms on historical and current data to estimate the likelihood of future outcomes or behaviour.

The use of algorithms that analyse past crime data to forecast where crimes are likely to happen or who is likely to be involved, so that police can direct their resources.

A complete version of a research paper that authors share publicly, usually on an online server, before it has been peer reviewed or published in a journal.

Data collected first-hand by the person or organisation that will use it, for a specific purpose, for example through a survey, interview or observation.

A field, or combination of fields, whose value is unique for each record in a table, so that every record can be identified unambiguously.

First-hand evidence created at the time of an event or by people directly involved, such as a platform's terms of service, census data or an interview.

An algorithm that ranks items by importance or urgency so the most important come first, such as search results or emergency calls.

An approach in which the protection of personal data is built into a digital system from the start and set as the default, rather than added afterwards or left for users to switch on; required in the EU by Article 25 of the GDPR.

A formal language with exact rules of syntax, such as Python or JavaScript, used to write algorithms as programs that computers can carry out.

Change that is judged to make things better according to particular values, such as wealth, health, knowledge, freedom or fairness; it is a value judgement rather than a measurement.

Communication designed to influence people's beliefs and actions in support of a political cause, often by appealing to emotion, repeating simple messages and presenting selected or misleading information.

An agreed set of rules that defines how data is formatted, transmitted, received and checked when devices communicate.

An intermediary server that forwards requests from users to other servers and returns the responses, so that it can filter, log, speed up or hide traffic.

A structured, step-by-step description of an algorithm that resembles a programming language, using keywords such as IF and FOR EACH, but is written for people to read rather than for a computer to run.

Acting online under a consistent name that is not one's legal name, so that actions link to one identity with a reputation while the person's legal identity stays hidden.

Classifying people by personality traits, values and attitudes, rather than only by demographic data such as age and location, often in order to tailor messages to them.

Descriptive, non-numerical data about qualities, opinions or experiences, such as interview answers, written reviews or images.

Data that can be counted or measured and expressed as numbers, such as age, income, temperature or the number of followers an account has.

A type of computing that uses the principles of quantum physics, such as superposition and entanglement, to process information in ways that ordinary computers cannot.

The basic unit of information in a quantum computer; unlike a bit, it can exist in a combination (superposition) of 0 and 1 until it is measured.

The computer's main working memory, which holds the programs and data currently in use; it is fast but volatile, so its contents are lost when the power is switched off.

Malicious software that encrypts a victim's data or locks their systems and demands payment, usually in cryptocurrency, to restore access.

Linking records in a supposedly anonymous dataset back to the real people they describe, usually by matching them with other available data.

Non-volatile memory whose contents are written during manufacture and are not normally changed, used to hold firmware such as the instructions that start the computer.

A specific, existing instance involving a digital system, which can be local, global or both, and which grounds an inquiry in what has actually happened rather than in general statements.

The situation in which efficiency gains from a technology are partly or fully cancelled out because the lower cost or greater convenience leads people to use more of it.

An algorithm that predicts which items, such as videos, songs, products or posts, a user is likely to engage with, based on their past behaviour and that of similar users, and ranks them for display.

One row of a database table, holding all the data about a single item, such as one student or one transaction.

A person who has fled their country because of a well-founded fear of persecution, conflict or serious violence, and who is protected under international law from being sent back to danger.

A rule, usually made under the authority of a law, that controls how organisations or individuals behave, together with the bodies and processes that monitor and enforce it.

Machine learning in which an agent learns to make decisions by taking actions in an environment and receiving rewards or penalties, gradually finding the strategy that earns the most reward.

A database that stores data in tables of records and fields and links the tables through shared key values.

Money or goods sent by a migrant worker to family or others in their country of origin, usually in small, regular amounts.

The practice of creating new works by combining, editing or adapting existing ones, such as mash-ups, memes, samples and fan videos.

Education that takes place when learners and teachers are in different physical locations, delivered through any medium, from online platforms to radio, television and printed packs.

Collecting information about the Earth's surface or atmosphere from a distance, usually with sensors on satellites, aircraft or drones that measure reflected light, heat or radar signals.

Doing paid work away from the employer's premises, usually at home, using digital systems such as laptops, video calls and cloud services to stay connected.

The way a social group is shown in media and digital systems, including how often it appears, in which roles and with which characteristics, and whether its members have a say in how they are portrayed.

Systematic work carried out to increase knowledge (research) and to use that knowledge to create new or improved products, processes and services (development).

Moving work that had been sent abroad back to a firm's home country.

A type of intervention that removes a negative aspect of a challenge. Few interventions resolve a whole challenge, but some resolve one specific aspect of it.

The difficulty of deciding who is morally or legally responsible when an autonomous system causes harm, because no single human directly chose the harmful action.

Using goods, services and resources in ways that meet people's needs while reducing waste, pollution and the use of raw materials across a product's life; the aim of SDG 12.

The right of individuals, established in EU law, to ask search engines and organisations to remove links to or delete personal information that is inaccurate, irrelevant, outdated or excessive.

The principle, increasingly written into law, that owners and independent repairers should be able to fix products, with access to spare parts, tools, manuals and software at a fair price.

An ethical framework that judges actions by whether they respect the rights every person holds, such as privacy or free expression, which may not be overridden simply to benefit others.

A ceremony or event that marks a person's move from one stage of life or social status to another, such as a birth, coming of age, graduation, marriage or death.

A programmable machine with a physical body that senses its environment, processes that information and acts on the physical world, carrying out tasks with some degree of independence from direct human control.

The debate over whether robots, especially advanced or humanlike ones, should be given moral consideration or legal rights and status, and what such rights would mean for human responsibility.

A device that connects two or more networks and forwards data between them, choosing a route for each piece of data based on its destination address.

Measuring an analogue signal at regular moments in time so that it can be converted into digital form; each sample is then rounded (quantised) to the nearest available level.

The level or size of the area at which a space, process or impact is studied, such as local, regional, national, global or virtual.

An interdisciplinary field that studies how science and technology are shaped by society, and how they in turn shape society, by examining designers, users, companies and governments.

The total time a person spends using devices with screens, such as phones, computers, televisions and games consoles; it is a simple measure that does not show what the person was doing.

An algorithm that finds an item, or items that match a request, within a collection of data.

Data that was collected by someone else, often for a different purpose, and is reused, such as census tables or published research.

An account or analysis based on other sources, such as a news analysis, a textbook chapter, a documentary or an academic review.

Choosing not to express an idea, opinion or experience, or changing how it is expressed, because of fear of negative consequences from the state, an employer, a platform or other people.

Learning in which individuals take the initiative to decide what to learn, find resources, set goals and judge their own progress, with or without help from others.

The practice of a platform giving its own products or services better treatment than those of rival businesses that depend on it, for example by ranking them higher or displaying them more prominently.

The process of managing how others see a person by choosing what to show, hide or emphasise, for example through profile photos, bios and the posts they share.

A model of how robots and autonomous systems work, in which sensors gather data about the environment, software processes the data to choose an action, and actuators carry out the action, in a continuous loop.

An input device that measures a physical property, such as temperature, light, movement, pressure or location, and converts it into data a computer can process.

The order in which an algorithm's instructions are carried out, one after another; changing the order usually changes the result.

A computer, or a program running on one, that provides data, resources or services to other computers, called clients, across a network.

A robot that performs useful tasks for people or equipment outside industrial manufacturing, such as cleaning, delivery, surgery, inspection or agriculture.

Physical systems used in common by many people and organisations, such as electricity grids, transport networks, water supply and public buildings, whose capacity is limited and costly to expand.

The practice of parents sharing information, photos and videos of their children on social media, often regularly and starting before the child can give consent.

An economic system in which individuals rent or lend their own assets or services, such as rooms, cars or skills, to others, usually through an online platform that matches them and takes a fee.

The use of a computer model to imitate the behaviour of a real system over time, so that researchers can test scenarios that would be impossible, unsafe, slow or expensive to test in reality.

An element of a system whose failure causes the whole system to stop working, because no other element can take over its function.

A complete computer built on one small circuit board, with its processor, memory and connections all on the board, such as the Raspberry Pi.

Low-effort online support for a cause, such as liking, sharing or changing a profile picture, which may make people feel they have helped without leading to real change.

An urban area that uses sensors, networks and data analysis to monitor and manage services such as transport, energy, water, waste and public safety, with the aim of making them more efficient and sustainable.

An electricity network that uses sensors, smart meters, two-way communication and software to monitor and balance supply and demand in real time, making it easier to integrate renewable energy and use existing capacity efficiently.

A home in which appliances, heating, lighting, security and entertainment devices are connected to the internet and can be monitored and controlled remotely or automatically, often through a phone app or voice assistant.