Geography terms in Global risks and resilience

Precipitation, fog or dry particles made more acidic than normal by sulphuric and nitric acids formed from sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, which damage lakes, soils, forests and buildings downwind.

An organised effort using media, social media, events and publicity to inform the public about an issue and change attitudes or behaviour, often the first stage of pressure on decision-makers.

Water pumped into tanks in a ship’s hull to keep it stable when it carries little cargo, and released in another port, often carrying organisms from a distant ecosystem.

The measurement of physical or behavioural characteristics, such as the face, fingerprints or iris, to identify individuals automatically, for example at borders or for access to services.

Heavy fuel oil, a thick residue of crude oil refining, burned in the engines of large ships; it is cheap but high in sulphur, so it pollutes the air along shipping lanes and in ports.

Scientific research in which members of the public collect, process or analyse data, usually following a standard method designed with professional scientists.

An organisation formed by citizens outside government and business to pursue shared interests or values, such as a charity, campaign group or trade union; an international one works across several countries.

Obtaining information, ideas, services or funds from a large number of people, usually through the internet or mobile phones, rather than from employees or official sources.

Raising money for a project, cause or person by collecting small contributions from a large number of people, usually through an online platform.

Crime carried out using computers and the internet, either by attacking computer systems and data or by using digital networks to commit offences such as fraud, theft and extortion.

The protection of computer networks, devices, programs and data from attack, damage or unauthorised access, through technology, procedures, training and cooperation between organisations and states.

An incident in which personal or confidential data held by an organisation are accessed, copied, stolen or published by someone who is not authorised to do so.

An electronic record and means of proving a person’s identity, such as a chip-based identity card, online account or biometric number, used to access services, make transactions or cross borders.

A new technology that significantly changes the way goods are produced, services are delivered or power is exercised, displacing established products, methods or institutions.

An aircraft without a human pilot on board, controlled remotely or flying autonomously, used for military, commercial, scientific and private purposes.

A passport with an embedded chip that stores the holder’s details and biometric data, digitally signed by the issuing state so that border systems can verify it.

An environment, especially online, in which people mainly encounter opinions that match their own, so that their views are reinforced rather than challenged.

The relocation of supply chains to countries that are political allies, to reduce the risk that geopolitical tension, sanctions or conflict will disrupt production.

Strained relations between states or other political actors over territory, resources, security, trade routes or influence, which can escalate into conflict.

An internationally agreed minimum rate of tax, set at 15% under the OECD/G20 Pillar Two rules, on the profits of large multinational companies in every country where they operate.

Gaining unauthorised access to a computer, network, account or data, for example by exploiting a weakness in software or by stealing passwords.

A widespread layer of air pollution, made mainly of fine smoke particles and gases from fires and industry, that reduces visibility and harms health, and can be carried across borders.

The use of another person’s personal information without permission, usually to commit fraud such as opening accounts, borrowing money or making purchases in their name.

A non-profit organisation, independent of governments, that operates in several countries to pursue humanitarian, environmental, development or human rights goals, such as Oxfam or Greenpeace.

A species introduced by human activity to an area outside its natural range, which spreads and harms native ecosystems, the economy or human health.

A system of manufacturing in which materials and components are delivered just as they are needed, so that little stock is held, reducing costs but increasing vulnerability to disruption.

A method that measures the environmental impacts of a product, such as its greenhouse gas emissions, across every stage of its life from raw materials and production to transport, use and disposal.

The attempt to influence the decisions of legislators, officials or international negotiators through direct contact, evidence and argument, by companies, industry groups or civil society organisations.

The cultivation of a single crop species over a large area, often for years in succession, which simplifies large-scale farming but reduces biodiversity and increases dependence on agrochemicals.

A political ideology and sense of identity that places the interests, culture and independence of a nation above those of other nations or international bodies.

The relocation of production by a TNC to a country close to its main market, such as Mexico for the USA, to shorten supply chains while keeping some cost advantage.

A small plastic pellet, usually under 5 mm across, made as the raw material for plastic products; nurdles spilled in production and shipping are a major source of microplastic pollution.

A toxic carbon-based chemical that resists breakdown, accumulates in the fatty tissue of organisms and is carried long distances by air and water, such as DDT or PCBs.

The ability of individuals to think, speak, communicate, travel and associate with others as they choose, without unjustified interference by the state or other powerful actors.

An attempt to trick people into revealing passwords, bank details or other personal information through messages or websites that appear to come from a trusted organisation.

The idea that, as trade and investment become freer, polluting industries relocate to places with weaker or less enforced environmental rules, shifting pollution towards lower-income countries.

The transfer of profits earned by a TNC’s foreign subsidiaries back to the parent company in its home country or headquarters, rather than reinvesting them in the host country.

Malicious software that encrypts or locks a victim’s files or systems and demands a payment, usually in cryptocurrency, to restore access.

The return of production or services by a TNC from an overseas location to its home country, usually to reduce supply-chain risk, gain government incentives or use automation.

Penalties imposed by one or more states or international organisations on a country, organisation or individual, such as trade bans, asset freezes and travel bans, to pressure them to change their behaviour.

The pursuit by a group, usually based in a particular region, of political independence or much greater self-government from the state of which it is part.

The dismantling of old ships to recover steel and other materials, carried out mainly on tidal beaches in South Asia, exposing workers and coasts to asbestos, oil and heavy metals.

A regularly used sea route between major ports, often channelled through straits and canals, along which ship traffic and the risk of collisions, spills and emissions are concentrated.

A model that traces pollution from where it is released (source), along the route by which it travels (pathway), to the people, ecosystems or property it harms (receptor).

The possibility that a physical, economic, political, accidental or cyber event will disrupt the flow of materials, components or products along a supply chain, causing delays, shortages or higher costs.

The systematic monitoring of people’s activities, communications or movements by governments, companies or other organisations, increasingly by collecting and analysing digital data.

The legal use of tax laws and loopholes by individuals or companies to reduce the tax they pay, for example by recording profits in low-tax countries.

The illegal failure to pay tax that is owed, for example by hiding income, profits or assets from the tax authorities or giving false information.

A country or territory with very low or no taxes on certain kinds of income or wealth, often with financial secrecy, used by companies and individuals to reduce the tax they pay elsewhere.

Pollution that originates in one country and crosses one or more international borders through the air, rivers or ocean currents, causing damage in places outside the jurisdiction where it was released.

The setting of prices for goods, services, loans or intellectual property traded between subsidiaries of the same TNC, which can be used to move profits to countries with lower taxes.

The process by which people identify more strongly with narrow groups, such as an ethnicity, religion, region or political camp, and become more distrustful of other groups.

An organisation that monitors governments, companies or other institutions and publicly reports failures to meet laws, standards or promises, so that they can be held to account.

A manufacturing process, also called additive manufacturing, that builds a three-dimensional object layer by layer from a digital design file.