Geography terms in Global resource consumption and security

An increase in agricultural output per unit of land, achieved by using more labour, capital, technology or inputs such as fertiliser, irrigation and improved seeds on the same area.

Land cultivated to grow temporary crops such as cereals, vegetables and fodder, including land left fallow for a short period.

An international treaty, signed in 1989 and in force since 1992, that controls transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and requires the prior informed consent of importing countries.

The capacity of ecosystems in an area to regenerate the resources people use and absorb their wastes, measured in global hectares, usually per person.

A fuel made from recently living organic matter, such as ethanol from maize or sugar cane and biodiesel from vegetable oil, used in place of petrol and diesel.

The theory, set out by Ester Boserup in 1965, that population growth and pressure on food supplies stimulate agricultural innovation and intensification, so food production rises to meet the needs of more people.

The maximum population that an area can support indefinitely with its available resources without degrading the environment; for people it depends on technology, trade and levels of consumption.

A narrow, strategic passage on a transport route, such as a strait or canal, through which a large share of trade passes and where disruption would block or delay supply.

An economic system that designs out waste and pollution, keeps products and materials in use at their highest value through reuse, repair, remanufacture and recycling, and regenerates natural systems.

Describing the optimistic view that human ingenuity, technology and markets will always find ways to overcome resource shortages, so population and economic growth can continue.

The removal of dissolved salts from seawater or brackish groundwater to produce fresh water, usually by reverse osmosis or distillation, which requires large amounts of energy.

Discarded electrical and electronic equipment and its parts, which contain valuable materials such as copper and gold and hazardous substances such as lead and mercury.

The calculated date each year on which humanity’s demand on nature exceeds what the Earth can regenerate that year: world biocapacity divided by world footprint, multiplied by 365.

The amount by which a population’s ecological footprint exceeds the biocapacity available to it; when biocapacity is larger, the difference is an ecological reserve.

The area of biologically productive land and sea needed to produce the resources a person or population consumes and absorb its wastes, especially CO₂, measured in global hectares.

The volume of fresh water used to produce a good or service, such as a kilogram of beef, which is traded invisibly when the product is exported; also called virtual water.

The share of a country’s energy use met by net imports, calculated as energy imports minus exports divided by energy use, times 100; negative values indicate a net exporter.

The combination of primary energy sources, such as oil, coal, gas, nuclear power and renewables, used to meet the energy needs of a country, region or the world.

The route by which energy resources travel from source to consumer, such as an oil or gas pipeline, a tanker shipping lane or an electricity transmission line.

A lack of access to modern energy services, especially electricity and clean cooking fuels, or the inability to afford enough energy for basic needs.

The uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price, including the ability to cope with sudden supply disruptions and to meet future demand.

Living on less than the World Bank’s international poverty line, US$3.00 a day per person at 2021 purchasing power parity, a level at which basic needs can barely be met.

The supply of food physically present in a country or area, from domestic production, imports, stocks and food aid, less exports and losses; one of the four pillars of food security.

A situation in which all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.

The ability of a country to meet its food needs from its own production rather than imports, often measured as domestic production as a percentage of consumption.

A non-renewable energy source such as coal, oil or natural gas, formed over millions of years from buried organic remains, which releases CO₂ when burned.

A method of extracting oil and gas by injecting water, sand and chemicals at high pressure into shale or other dense rock to fracture it and release the hydrocarbons.

The study of how geographical factors such as location, territory, borders and natural resources shape political power and relations between states.

A measure of inequality from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality): the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve divided by the total area under the line.

A unit of area representing one hectare of land or sea with world-average biological productivity, used to express ecological footprints and biocapacity.

The spread, from the 1960s, of high-yielding varieties of cereals together with irrigation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, which greatly increased crop yields in many parts of Asia and Latin America.

A chemical compound of hydrogen and carbon; in energy geography, the collective term for crude oil and natural gas.

A collaboration in which separate firms, usually located close together, exchange materials, energy, water and by-products, so that the waste or surplus of one becomes a resource for another.

The uneven distribution of income, wealth, resources or opportunities between people, groups or places, measured for example by the Gini coefficient.

The income threshold the World Bank uses to measure extreme poverty worldwide, set at US$3.00 a day per person in 2021 PPP dollars from June 2025.

A site where waste is disposed of by burying it in the ground; a sanitary landfill uses liners, leachate drainage and daily cover to limit pollution.

An economic system based on “take, make, dispose”, in which raw materials are extracted, made into products, used and then discarded as waste.

A graph plotting the cumulative percentage of income or wealth against the cumulative percentage of the population, ranked from poorest to richest, to show inequality.

The theory, set out by Thomas Malthus in 1798, that population grows geometrically while food supply grows only arithmetically, so population will outstrip food and be held back by famine, disease and war.

Eight international development goals adopted by the United Nations for 2000–2015, focused mainly on reducing poverty, hunger, disease and illiteracy in low- and middle-income countries.

The solid waste collected by or for local authorities from households, businesses and public spaces, such as food waste, packaging, paper, plastics, glass, metals and textiles.

Describing the modern view, developed from Malthus’s ideas, that continued growth in population and consumption will exceed the Earth’s resources and environmental limits unless growth is controlled.

People, mostly in emerging economies, whose household spending of about US$11–110 a day per person (2011 PPP) allows them to buy goods and services beyond basic needs.

Electricity generated from the heat released by nuclear fission of uranium in a reactor; a low-carbon but non-renewable source that produces radioactive waste.

The shift in diets that accompanies rising incomes and urbanisation, from mainly cereals, roots and pulses towards more meat, dairy, vegetable oils, sugar and processed food.

The theoretical population size at which, with the available resources and technology, the standard of living or output per person is at its highest.

A situation in which the population of an area is too large for its resources and technology to support at an adequate standard of living, shown by poverty, unemployment, food shortages or environmental degradation.

A framework that sets limits for nine Earth-system processes, such as climate change, biosphere integrity and freshwater change, within which humanity can operate without risking abrupt or irreversible environmental change.

The deliberate design of a product so that it becomes unusable, unrepairable or out of date after a limited period, encouraging consumers to replace it.

A condition in which a person or household lacks the income or resources to meet basic needs such as food, clean water, shelter, health care and education; also called absolute poverty.

The reprocessing of waste materials such as paper, glass, metals and plastics into new products or raw materials, reducing the need to extract new resources.

A condition in which a person’s income or resources are well below the average of the society they live in, usually below 50% or 60% of median household income.

Energy from sources naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, flowing water, geothermal heat and biomass.

The use of natural resources such as water, land, food, energy and materials by individuals, countries or the world, including use of the environment’s capacity to absorb waste.

The careful and responsible management of resources by individuals, businesses, communities and governments so that they are used efficiently, conserved and passed on in good condition to future generations.

Drinking water from an improved source that is on the premises, available when needed and free from contamination; the highest level of the WHO/UNICEF drinking-water ladder.

Natural gas trapped in fine-grained shale rock, extracted by horizontal drilling and fracking; oil extracted in the same way is called tight oil.

The use of resources and environments in ways that meet present needs without reducing their availability or quality for future generations, so that natural systems can continue to function indefinitely.

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland Report, 1987), balancing economic, social and environmental goals.

Seventeen global goals with 169 targets, adopted by all UN member states in 2015 for achievement by 2030, which aim to end poverty and hunger, reduce inequality and protect the planet in all countries.

A condition in which a person’s usual food intake does not provide enough dietary energy for a normal, active and healthy life; reported by the FAO as a share of the population.

A ranking of waste management options in order of environmental preference: prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery (such as energy from waste) and, last, disposal.

The total volume of fresh water used directly and indirectly to produce the goods and services consumed by a person, community, business or country.

The capacity of a population to maintain sustainable access to enough water of acceptable quality for livelihoods, health and development, while being protected from water-borne pollution and water-related disasters.

The volume of fresh water taken from rivers, lakes or aquifers for use in agriculture, industry or homes, part of which may later be returned.

The interdependence of water, food and energy systems, in which producing, moving or using one resource requires or affects the others, creating trade-offs and synergies.