IB Chemistry data booklet, explained

Every section, from the equations and constants to the periodic table, bond enthalpies and spectroscopy data, word for word and in the order the IB prints them. Press Explain beside an entry to see what it means and how to use it, with worked examples for the formulas.

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Chemistry data booklet, first assessment 2025, version 1.1
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Chemistry, first assessment 2025
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Chemistry data booklet

First assessment 2025, Version 1.1

Reproduced from the IB Chemistry data booklet, First assessment 2025, Version 1.1. Explanations are ours.

Contents

  1. 1Some relevant equationssheet 3
  2. 2Physical constantssheet 4
  3. 3Metric (SI) multiplierssheet 5
  4. 4Unit conversions and standard conditionssheet 6
  5. 5The electromagnetic spectrumsheet 7
  6. 6Names of the elementssheet 8
  7. 7The periodic tablesheet 9
  8. 8Melting points and boiling points of the elements at 101.325 kPasheet 10
  9. 9First ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity of the elementssheet 11
  10. 10Atomic and ionic radii of the elementssheet 12
  11. 11Covalent or average covalent bond lengthssheet 13
  12. 12Bond enthalpies or average bond enthalpies at 298.15 Ksheet 14
  13. 13Thermodynamic data (selected compounds)sheet 15
  14. 14Enthalpies of combustionsheet 16
  15. 15Colour wheel with wavelengths of the visible spectrumsheet 17
  16. 16Lattice enthalpies at 298.15 K (experimental values)sheet 18
  17. 17Triangular bonding diagram (van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle)sheet 19
  18. 18Acid–base indicatorssheet 20
  19. 19Standard reduction potentials at 298.15 Ksheet 21
  20. 20Infrared datasheet 22
  21. 21¹H NMR datasheet 23
  22. 22Mass spectral fragments lostsheet 24
  23. 23Uncertaintiessheet 25

1Some relevant equations

Wave equation (speed of light)
c=fλc = f\lambda
Energy of a photon (Planck relation)
E=hfE = hf
Amount of substance from mass
n=mMn = \dfrac{m}{M}
Amount of substance in a solution
n=CVn = CV
Ideal gas equation
PV=nRTPV = nRT
Combined gas law
P1V1T1=P2V2T2\dfrac{P_1V_1}{T_1} = \dfrac{P_2V_2}{T_2}
Heat transferred (calorimetry)
Q=mcΔTQ = mc\Delta T
Percentage atom economy
% atom economy=molar mass of desired productmolar mass of all reactants×100\%\ \text{atom economy} = \dfrac{\text{molar mass of desired product}}{\text{molar mass of all reactants}} \times 100
Enthalpy change from enthalpies of formation
ΔH⊖=∑(ΔHf⊖products)−∑(ΔHf⊖reactants)\Delta H^{\ominus} = \sum(\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\ominus}{}_{\text{products}}) - \sum(\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\ominus}{}_{\text{reactants}})
Enthalpy change from enthalpies of combustion
ΔH⊖=∑(ΔHc⊖reactants)−∑(ΔHc⊖products)\Delta H^{\ominus} = \sum(\Delta H_{\mathrm{c}}^{\ominus}{}_{\text{reactants}}) - \sum(\Delta H_{\mathrm{c}}^{\ominus}{}_{\text{products}})
Gibbs energy change
ΔG⊖=ΔH⊖−TΔS⊖\Delta G^{\ominus} = \Delta H^{\ominus} - T\Delta S^{\ominus}
Gibbs energy change and the reaction quotient
ΔG=ΔG⊖+RTln⁡Q\Delta G = \Delta G^{\ominus} + RT\ln Q
Gibbs energy change and the equilibrium constant
ΔG⊖=−RTln⁡K\Delta G^{\ominus} = -RT\ln K
Gibbs energy change and cell potential
ΔG⊖=−nFE⊖\Delta G^{\ominus} = -nFE^{\ominus}
Arrhenius equation
k=Ae−EaRTk = A\mathrm{e}^{\frac{-E_{\mathrm{a}}}{RT}}
Arrhenius equation (logarithmic form)
ln⁡k=−EaRT+ln⁡A\ln k = \dfrac{-E_{\mathrm{a}}}{RT} + \ln A
pH=−log⁡10[H3O+]\mathrm{pH} = -\log_{10}[\mathrm{H_3O^+}]
or
pH=−log⁡10[H+]\mathrm{pH} = -\log_{10}[\mathrm{H^+}]
Ionic product of water
Kw=[H+] [OH−]K_{\mathrm{w}} = [\mathrm{H^+}]\,[\mathrm{OH^-}]
pOH
pOH=−log⁡10[OH−]\mathrm{pOH} = -\log_{10}[\mathrm{OH^-}]

2Physical constants

QuantitySymbolApproximate value
Elementary charge
ee
1.602177×10−19 C1.602177\times10^{-19}\ \mathrm{C}
Electron rest mass
mem_{\mathrm{e}}
9.109384×10−31 kg9.109384\times10^{-31}\ \mathrm{kg}
Proton rest mass
mpm_{\mathrm{p}}
1.672622×10−27 kg1.672622\times10^{-27}\ \mathrm{kg}
Neutron rest mass
mnm_{\mathrm{n}}
1.674927×10−27 kg1.674927\times10^{-27}\ \mathrm{kg}
Speed of light in vacuum
cc
3.00×108 m s−13.00\times10^{8}\ \mathrm{m\,s^{-1}}
Planck constant
hh
6.63×10−34 J s6.63\times10^{-34}\ \mathrm{J\,s}
Avogadro constant
NAN_{\mathrm{A}}
6.02×1023 mol−16.02\times10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol^{-1}}
Gas constant
RR
8.31 J K−1 mol−18.31\ \mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}
Molar volume of an ideal gas at STP
VmV_{\mathrm{m}}
2.27×10−2 m3 mol−1=22.7 dm3 mol−12.27\times10^{-2}\ \mathrm{m^{3}\,mol^{-1}} = 22.7\ \mathrm{dm^{3}\,mol^{-1}}
Specific heat capacity of water
cwc_{\mathrm{w}}
4.18 kJ kg−1 K−1=4.18 J g−1 K−14.18\ \mathrm{kJ\,kg^{-1}\,K^{-1}} = 4.18\ \mathrm{J\,g^{-1}\,K^{-1}}
Ionic product constant for water at 298.15 K
KwK_{\mathrm{w}}
1.00×10−14 mol2 dm−61.00\times10^{-14}\ \mathrm{mol^{2}\,dm^{-6}}
Faraday constant
FF
9.65×104 C mol−19.65\times10^{4}\ \mathrm{C\,mol^{-1}}

3Metric (SI) multipliers

PrefixAbbreviationValue
petaP101510^{15}
teraT101210^{12}
gigaG10910^{9}
megaM10610^{6}
kilok10310^{3}
hectoh10210^{2}
decada10110^{1}
decid10−110^{-1}
centic10−210^{-2}
millim10−310^{-3}
microμ10−610^{-6}
nanon10−910^{-9}
picop10−1210^{-12}
femtof10−1510^{-15}

4Unit conversions and standard conditions

Temperature (K) == temperature (°C) ++ 273.15
1dm3=1 litre=1×10−3 m3=1×103 cm31\mathrm{dm^{3}} = 1\ \text{litre} = 1\times10^{-3}\ \mathrm{m^{3}} = 1\times10^{3}\ \mathrm{cm^{3}}
STP conditions: 273.15 K and 100 kPa
SATP conditions: 298.15 K and 100 kPa

5The electromagnetic spectrum

increasing energy10−1610−1410−1210−1010−810−610−410−2100102104106108wavelength / mγ-raysX-raysUVIRmicrowavesradio wavesVIBGYOR400700wavelength / nm

Wavelength / m from 10−1610^{-16} to 10810^{8}, marked every factor of 10210^{2}; the arrow labelled “increasing energy” points to shorter wavelengths. The visible region (VIBGYOR) is expanded on a wavelength / nm scale from 400 to 700.

6Names of the elements

ElementSymbolAtomic number
actinium89
aluminium13
americium95
antimony51
argon18
arsenic33
astatine85
barium56
berkelium97
beryllium4
bismuth83
bohrium107
boron5
bromine35
cadmium48
caesium55
calcium20
californium98
carbon6
cerium58
chlorine17
chromium24
cobalt27
copernicium112
copper29
curium96
darmstadtium110
dubnium105
dysprosium66
einsteinium99
erbium68
europium63
fermium100
flerovium114
fluorine9
francium87
gadolinium64
gallium31
germanium32
gold79
hafnium72
hassium108
helium2
holmium67
hydrogen1
indium49
iodine53
iridium77
iron26
krypton36
lanthanum57
lawrencium103
lead82
lithium3
livermorium116
lutetium71
magnesium12
manganese25
meitnerium109
mendelevium101
mercury80
molybdenum42
moscovium115
neodymium60
neon10
neptunium93
nickel28
nihonium113
niobium41
nitrogen7
nobelium102
oganesson118
osmium76
oxygen8
palladium46
phosphorus15
platinum78
plutonium94
polonium84
potassium19
praseodymium59
promethium61
protactinium91
radium88
radon86
rhenium75
rhodium45
roentgenium111
rubidium37
ruthenium44
rutherfordium104
samarium62
scandium21
seaborgium106
selenium34
silicon14
silver47
sodium11
strontium38
sulfur16
tantalum73
technetium43
tellurium52
tennessine117
terbium65
thallium81
thorium90
thulium69
tin50
titanium22
tungsten74
uranium92
vanadium23
xenon54
ytterbium70
yttrium39
zinc30
zirconium40

7The periodic table

Atomic numberElementRelative atomic mass

8Melting points and boiling points of the elements at 101.325 kPa

Melting point / ∘C^{\circ}\mathrm{C}ElementBoiling point / ∘C^{\circ}\mathrm{C}

9First ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity of the elements

First ionization energy / kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}Electron affinity (EA) / kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}ElementElectronegativity

(2nd EA / kJ mol−1^{-1})

10Atomic and ionic radii of the elements

The values for atomic radii used in this table are the covalent radii of the elements.

Atomic radius / 10−12 m10^{-12}\ \mathrm{m}ElementIonic radius (charge) / 10−12 m10^{-12}\ \mathrm{m}

11Covalent or average covalent bond lengths

Single bonds

BondLength10−12 m10^{-12}\,\mathrm{m}
H−H\ce{H-H}74
H−F\ce{H-F}92
H−Cl\ce{H-Cl}128
H−Br\ce{H-Br}141
H−I\ce{H-I}160
C−H\ce{C-H}108
C−C\ce{C-C}154
C−N\ce{C-N}147
C−O\ce{C-O}143
C−Si\ce{C-Si}185
C−P\ce{C-P}184
C−S\ce{C-S}182
C−F\ce{C-F}138
C−Cl\ce{C-Cl}177
C−Br\ce{C-Br}194
C−I\ce{C-I}214
N−H\ce{N-H}101
N−N\ce{N-N}146
N−O\ce{N-O}136
N−Si\ce{N-Si}174
N−S\ce{N-S}175
N−F\ce{N-F}136
N−Cl\ce{N-Cl}197
N−Br\ce{N-Br}214
O−H\ce{O-H}97
O−O\ce{O-O}148
O−Si\ce{O-Si}163
O−P\ce{O-P}154
O−S\ce{O-S}161
O−F\ce{O-F}142
O−Cl\ce{O-Cl}170
Si−H\ce{Si-H}148
Si−Si\ce{Si-Si}232
Si−S\ce{Si-S}215
Si−F\ce{Si-F}156
Si−Cl\ce{Si-Cl}202
Si−Br\ce{Si-Br}216
Si−I\ce{Si-I}243
P−H\ce{P-H}142
P−P\ce{P-P}221
P−S\ce{P-S}210
P−F\ce{P-F}154
P−Cl\ce{P-Cl}203
P−Br\ce{P-Br}220
P−I\ce{P-I}247
S−H\ce{S-H}134
S−S\ce{S-S}205
S−F\ce{S-F}158
S−Cl\ce{S-Cl}199
S−Br\ce{S-Br}227
F−F\ce{F-F}142
F−Cl\ce{F-Cl}163
F−Br\ce{F-Br}176
F−I\ce{F-I}191
Cl−Cl\ce{Cl-Cl}199
Cl−Br\ce{Cl-Br}214
Cl−I\ce{Cl-I}232
Br−Br\ce{Br-Br}228
Br−I\ce{Br-I}247
I−I\ce{I-I}267

Multiple bonds

BondLength10−12 m10^{-12}\,\mathrm{m}
C=C\ce{C=C}134
C=N\ce{C=N}130
C=O\ce{C=O}122
C=S\ce{C=S}156
C≡C\ce{C#C}120
C≡N\ce{C#N}116
C≡O\ce{C#O}113
N=N\ce{N=N}125
N=O\ce{N=O}114
N≡N\ce{N#N}110
O=O\ce{O=O}121
O=S\ce{O=S}143
S=S\ce{S=S}189

12Bond enthalpies or average bond enthalpies at 298.15 K

Single bonds

BondEnthalpykJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}
H−H\ce{H-H}436
H−F\ce{H-F}567
H−Cl\ce{H-Cl}431
H−Br\ce{H-Br}366
H−I\ce{H-I}298
C−H\ce{C-H}414
C−C\ce{C-C}346
C−N\ce{C-N}286
C−O\ce{C-O}358
C−Si\ce{C-Si}307
C−P\ce{C-P}264
C−S\ce{C-S}289
C−F\ce{C-F}492
C−Cl\ce{C-Cl}324
C−Br\ce{C-Br}285
C−I\ce{C-I}228
N−H\ce{N-H}391
N−N\ce{N-N}158
N−O\ce{N-O}214
N−F\ce{N-F}278
N−Cl\ce{N-Cl}192
O−H\ce{O-H}463
O−O\ce{O-O}144
O−Si\ce{O-Si}466
O−P\ce{O-P}363
O−F\ce{O-F}191
O−Cl\ce{O-Cl}206
O−Br\ce{O-Br}201
O−I\ce{O-I}201
Si−H\ce{Si-H}323
Si−Si\ce{Si-Si}226
Si−S\ce{Si-S}293
Si−F\ce{Si-F}597
Si−Cl\ce{Si-Cl}400
Si−Br\ce{Si-Br}330
Si−I\ce{Si-I}234
P−H\ce{P-H}322
P−P\ce{P-P}198
P−F\ce{P-F}490
P−Cl\ce{P-Cl}322
P−Br\ce{P-Br}264
P−I\ce{P-I}184
S−H\ce{S-H}364
S−S\ce{S-S}266
S−F\ce{S-F}327
S−Cl\ce{S-Cl}271
S−Br\ce{S-Br}218
F−F\ce{F-F}159
F−Cl\ce{F-Cl}255
F−Br\ce{F-Br}249
F−I\ce{F-I}280
Cl−Cl\ce{Cl-Cl}242
Cl−Br\ce{Cl-Br}219
Cl−I\ce{Cl-I}211
Br−Br\ce{Br-Br}193
Br−I\ce{Br-I}178
I−I\ce{I-I}151

Multiple bonds

BondEnthalpykJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}
C=C\ce{C=C}614
C=N\ce{C=N}615
C=O\ce{C=O}804
C=S\ce{C=S}536
C≡C\ce{C#C}839
C≡N\ce{C#N}890
C≡O\ce{C#O}1077
N=N\ce{N=N}470
N=O\ce{N=O}587
N≡N\ce{N#N}945
O=O\ce{O=O}498
O=S\ce{O=S}522
S=S\ce{S=S}429

13Thermodynamic data (selected compounds)

SubstanceFormulaStateΔHf⊖\Delta H_{\mathrm{f}}^{\ominus}kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}ΔGf⊖\Delta G_{\mathrm{f}}^{\ominus}kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}S⊖S^{\ominus}J K−1 mol−1\mathrm{J\,K^{-1}\,mol^{-1}}
methaneCHX4\ce{CH4}g−74−50+186
ethaneCX2HX6\ce{C2H6}g−84−32+230
propaneCX3HX8\ce{C3H8}g−105−24+270
butaneCX4HX10\ce{C4H10}g−126−17+310
pentaneCX5HX12\ce{C5H12}l−173
hexaneCX6HX14\ce{C6H14}l−199
etheneCX2HX4\ce{C2H4}g+52+68+220
propeneCX3HX6\ce{C3H6}g+20+62+267
but-1-eneCX4HX8\ce{C4H8}g+0.1+71+306
cis-but-2-eneCX4HX8\ce{C4H8}g−7+66+301
trans-but-2-eneCX4HX8\ce{C4H8}g−11+63+297
ethyneCX2HX2\ce{C2H2}g+228+211+201
propyneCX3HX4\ce{C3H4}g+185+194+248
buta-1,3-dieneCX4HX6\ce{C4H6}g+110+151+279
cyclohexaneCX6HX12\ce{C6H12}l−156
benzeneCX6HX6\ce{C6H6}l+49+125+173
methylbenzeneCX6HX5CHX3\ce{C6H5CH3}l+12
ethylbenzeneCX6HX5CHX2CHX3\ce{C6H5CH2CH3}l−12
phenyletheneCX6HX5CHCHX2\ce{C6H5CHCH2}l+104
chloromethaneCHX3Cl\ce{CH3Cl}g−82−58+235
dichloromethaneCHX2ClX2\ce{CH2Cl2}l−124+178
trichloromethaneCHClX3\ce{CHCl3}l−134−74+202
bromomethaneCHX3Br\ce{CH3Br}g−36−26+246
iodomethaneCHX3I\ce{CH3I}l−14+163
chloroethaneCX2HX5Cl\ce{C2H5Cl}g−137−53
bromoethaneCX2HX5Br\ce{C2H5Br}l−90−26+199
chlorobenzeneCX6HX5Cl\ce{C6H5Cl}l+11
methanolCHX3OH\ce{CH3OH}l−239−167+127
ethanolCX2HX5OH\ce{C2H5OH}l−278−175+161
phenolCX6HX5OH\ce{C6H5OH}s−165+144
methanalHCHO\ce{HCHO}g−109−102+219
ethanalCHX3CHO\ce{CH3CHO}g−166−133+264
propanone(CHX3)X2CO\ce{(CH3)2CO}l−248+200
methanoic acidHCOOH\ce{HCOOH}l−425−361+129
ethanoic acidCHX3COOH\ce{CH3COOH}l−484−390+160
benzoic acidCX6HX5COOH\ce{C6H5COOH}s−385+168
methylamineCHX3NHX2\ce{CH3NH2}g−23+32+243
waterHX2O\ce{H2O}l−286−237+70
steamHX2O\ce{H2O}g−242−229+189
carbon monoxideCO\ce{CO}g−111−137+198
carbon dioxideCOX2\ce{CO2}g−394−394+214
hydrogen bromideHBr\ce{HBr}g−36−53+199
hydrogen chlorideHCl\ce{HCl}g−92−95+187
hydrogen fluorideHF\ce{HF}g−273−275+174
hydrogen iodideHI\ce{HI}g+26+2+207

14Enthalpies of combustion

The values of the molar enthalpy of combustion (ΔHc⊖\Delta H_{\mathrm{c}}^{\ominus}) in the following table refer to a temperature of 298.15 K and a pressure of 100 kPa.

SubstanceFormulaStateΔHc⊖\Delta H_{\mathrm{c}}^{\ominus}kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}
hydrogenHX2\ce{H2}g−286
sulfurS\ce{S}s−297
carbon (graphite)C\ce{C}s−394
carbon monoxideCO\ce{CO}g−283
methaneCHX4\ce{CH4}g−891
ethaneCX2HX6\ce{C2H6}g−1561
propaneCX3HX8\ce{C3H8}g−2219
butaneCX4HX10\ce{C4H10}g−2878
pentaneCX5HX12\ce{C5H12}l−3509
hexaneCX6HX14\ce{C6H14}l−4163
octaneCX8HX18\ce{C8H18}l−5470
cyclohexaneCX6HX12\ce{C6H12}l−3920
etheneCX2HX4\ce{C2H4}g−1411
buta-1,3-dieneCX4HX6\ce{C4H6}g−2541
ethyneCX2HX2\ce{C2H2}g−1301
benzeneCX6HX6\ce{C6H6}l−3268
methylbenzeneCX6HX5CHX3\ce{C6H5CH3}l−3910
naphthaleneCX10HX8\ce{C10H8}s−5156
chloroethaneCX2HX5Cl\ce{C2H5Cl}g−1413
iodoethaneCX2HX5I\ce{C2H5I}l−1463
trichloromethaneCHClX3\ce{CHCl3}l−473
methanolCHX3OH\ce{CH3OH}l−726
ethanolCX2HX5OH\ce{C2H5OH}l−1367
propan-1-olCX3HX7OH\ce{C3H7OH}l−2021
butan-1-olCX4HX9OH\ce{C4H9OH}l−2676
cyclohexanolCX6HX11OH\ce{C6H11OH}s−3728
phenolCX6HX5OH\ce{C6H5OH}s−3053
ethoxyethane(CX2HX5)X2O\ce{(C2H5)2O}l−2724
methanalHCHO\ce{HCHO}g−571
ethanalCHX3CHO\ce{CH3CHO}g−1167
benzaldehydeCX6HX5CHO\ce{C6H5CHO}l−3525
propanone(CHX3)X2CO\ce{(CH3)2CO}l−1790
pentan-3-one(CX2HX5)X2CO\ce{(C2H5)2CO}l−3100
phenylethanoneCHX3COCX6HX5\ce{CH3COC6H5}l−4149
methanoic acidHCOOH\ce{HCOOH}l−255
ethanoic acidCHX3COOH\ce{CH3COOH}l−874
benzoic acidCX6HX5COOH\ce{C6H5COOH}s−3228
ethanedioic acid(COOH)X2\ce{(COOH)2}s−243
ethyl ethanoateCHX3COOCX2HX5\ce{CH3COOC2H5}l−2238
ethanamideCHX3CONHX2\ce{CH3CONH2}s−1186
methylamineCHX3NHX2\ce{CH3NH2}g−1086
phenylamineCX6HX5NHX2\ce{C6H5NH2}l−3393
nitrobenzeneCX6HX5NOX2\ce{C6H5NO2}l−3088
ureaCO(NHX2)X2\ce{CO(NH2)2}s−633
glucoseCX6HX12OX6\ce{C6H12O6}s−2803
sucroseCX12HX22OX11\ce{C12H22O11}s−5640

15Colour wheel with wavelengths of the visible spectrum

YellowOrangeRedVioletBlueGreen575 nm585 nm647 nm424 nm491 nm700 nm400 nm

Boundary wavelengths: 400 nm, 424 nm, 491 nm, 575 nm, 585 nm, 647 nm, 700 nm.

Wavelength ranges read from the colour wheel above (the booklet prints no table)

ColourWavelengthnm\mathrm{nm}Notes
Violet400–424
Blue424–491
Green491–575
Yellow575–585
Orange585–647
Red647–700

16Lattice enthalpies at 298.15 K (experimental values)

The lattice enthalpy values (ΔHlattice⊖\Delta H^{\ominus}_{\text{lattice}}) in the following tables relate to the endothermic process MaXb(s)→aMb+(g)+bXa−(g)\mathrm{M}_{a}\mathrm{X}_{b}(\mathrm{s}) \rightarrow a\mathrm{M}^{b+}(\mathrm{g}) + b\mathrm{X}^{a-}(\mathrm{g}) in which the gaseous ions of a crystal are separated to an infinite distance from each other.

The data in these tables are experimental values obtained by means of a suitable Born–Haber cycle.

ΔHlattice⊖\Delta H^{\ominus}_{\text{lattice}} / kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}
Alkali metal halidesFClBrI
Li1049864820764
Na930790754705
K829720691650
Rb795695668632
Cs759670647613
Other substancesΔHlattice⊖\Delta H^{\ominus}_{\text{lattice}}kJ mol−1\mathrm{kJ\,mol^{-1}}
CaFX2\ce{CaF2}2651
BeClX2\ce{BeCl2}3033
MgClX2\ce{MgCl2}2540
CaClX2\ce{CaCl2}2271
SrClX2\ce{SrCl2}2170
BaClX2\ce{BaCl2}2069
MgO\ce{MgO}3791
CaO\ce{CaO}3401
SrO\ce{SrO}3223
BaO\ce{BaO}3054
CuClX2\ce{CuCl2}2824
AgF\ce{AgF}974
AgCl\ce{AgCl}918
AgBr\ce{AgBr}905
AgI\ce{AgI}892

17Triangular bonding diagram (van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle)

Electronegativity difference:Δχ = |χa − χb|%covalent%ionic8922575505075251000IonicPolarcovalentCovalentMetallic00.51.01.52.02.53.00.791.01.52.02.53.03.54.0Average electronegativity:Σχ =(χa + χb)2

Point at the triangle to read Σχ, Δχ and the bonding type.

Electronegativity difference: Δχ=∣χa−χb∣\Delta\chi = \left|\chi_{a} - \chi_{b}\right| (vertical axis). Average electronegativity: Σχ=(χa+χb)2\Sigma\chi = \dfrac{\left(\chi_{a} + \chi_{b}\right)}{2} (horizontal axis). % covalent / % ionic: 8 / 92, 25 / 75, 50 / 50, 75 / 25, 100 / 0.

18Acid–base indicators

Colour change
IndicatorpKaK_{\mathrm{a}}pH rangeAcidAlkali
methyl orange3.73.1–4.4redyellow
bromophenol blue4.23.0–4.6yellowblue
bromocresol green4.74.0–5.6yellowblue
methyl red5.14.4–6.2redyellow
bromothymol blue7.06.0–7.6yellowblue
phenol red7.96.4–8.0yellowred
phenolphthalein9.68.0–10.0colourlesspink

19Standard reduction potentials at 298.15 K

Oxidized speciesReduced speciesE⊖E^{\ominus}V\mathrm{V}
LiX+(aq)+eX−\ce{Li+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Li(s)\ce{Li(s)}−3.04
KX+(aq)+eX−\ce{K+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}K(s)\ce{K(s)}−2.93
CaX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Ca^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Ca(s)\ce{Ca(s)}−2.87
NaX+(aq)+eX−\ce{Na+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Na(s)\ce{Na(s)}−2.71
MgX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Mg^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Mg(s)\ce{Mg(s)}−2.37
AlX3+(aq)+3 eX−\ce{Al^3+(aq) + 3e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Al(s)\ce{Al(s)}−1.66
MnX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Mn^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Mn(s)\ce{Mn(s)}−1.18
HX2O(l)+eX−\ce{H2O(l) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}12 HX2(g)+OHX−(aq)\ce{1/2H2(g) + OH-(aq)}−0.83
ZnX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Zn^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Zn(s)\ce{Zn(s)}−0.76
FeX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Fe^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Fe(s)\ce{Fe(s)}−0.45
NiX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Ni^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Ni(s)\ce{Ni(s)}−0.26
SnX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Sn^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Sn(s)\ce{Sn(s)}−0.14
PbX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Pb^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Pb(s)\ce{Pb(s)}−0.13
HX+(aq)+eX−\ce{H+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}12 HX2(g)\ce{1/2H2(g)}0.00
CuX2+(aq)+eX−\ce{Cu^2+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}CuX+(aq)\ce{Cu+(aq)}+0.15
SOX4X2−(aq)+4 HX+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{SO4^2-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}HX2SOX3(aq)+HX2O(l)\ce{H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)}+0.17
CuX2+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{Cu^2+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Cu(s)\ce{Cu(s)}+0.34
12 OX2(g)+HX2O(l)+2 eX−\ce{1/2O2(g) + H2O(l) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}2 OHX−(aq)\ce{2OH-(aq)}+0.40
CuX+(aq)+eX−\ce{Cu+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Cu(s)\ce{Cu(s)}+0.52
12 IX2(s)+eX−\ce{1/2I2(s) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}IX−(aq)\ce{I-(aq)}+0.54
FeX3+(aq)+eX−\ce{Fe^3+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}FeX2+(aq)\ce{Fe^2+(aq)}+0.77
AgX+(aq)+eX−\ce{Ag+(aq) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}Ag(s)\ce{Ag(s)}+0.80
12 BrX2(l)+eX−\ce{1/2Br2(l) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}BrX−(aq)\ce{Br-(aq)}+1.09
12 OX2(g)+2 HX+(aq)+2 eX−\ce{1/2O2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e-}⇌\ce{<=>}HX2O(l)\ce{H2O(l)}+1.23
CrX2OX7X2−(aq)+14 HX+(aq)+6 eX−\ce{Cr2O7^2-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e-}⇌\ce{<=>}2 CrX3+(aq)+7 HX2O(l)\ce{2Cr^3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)}+1.36
12 ClX2(g)+eX−\ce{1/2Cl2(g) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}ClX−(aq)\ce{Cl-(aq)}+1.36
MnOX4X−(aq)+8 HX+(aq)+5 eX−\ce{MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e-}⇌\ce{<=>}MnX2+(aq)+4 HX2O(l)\ce{Mn^2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)}+1.51
12 FX2(g)+eX−\ce{1/2F2(g) + e-}⇌\ce{<=>}FX−(aq)\ce{F-(aq)}+2.87

20Infrared data

Characteristic ranges for infrared absorption due to stretching vibrations in organic molecules

BondTypes of organic moleculesWavenumbercm−1\mathrm{cm^{-1}}Intensity
C−I\ce{C-I}iodoalkanes490–620strong
C−Br\ce{C-Br}bromoalkanes500–600strong
C−Cl\ce{C-Cl}chloroalkanes600–800strong
C−F\ce{C-F}fluoroalkanes1000–1400strong
C−O\ce{C-O}alcohols, esters, ethers1050–1410strong
C=C\ce{C=C}alkenes1620–1680medium-weak; multiple bands
C=O\ce{C=O}aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and esters1700–1750strong
C≡C\ce{C#C}alkynes2100–2260variable
O−H\ce{O-H}carboxylic acids (with hydrogen bonding)2500–3000strong, very broad
C−H\ce{C-H}alkanes, alkenes, arenes2850–3090strong
O−H\ce{O-H}alcohols and phenols (with hydrogen bonding)3200–3600strong, broad
N−H\ce{N-H}primary amines3300–3500medium; two bands

21¹H NMR data

Typical proton chemical shift values (δ\delta) relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS)

R represents an alkyl group, and Hal represents F, Cl, Br or I.

These values may vary for different solvents and conditions.

Type of protonChemical shiftppm\mathrm{ppm}Notes
−CH3\mathrm{{-}C}\mathbf{H}_{3}0.9–1.0
−CH2−R\mathrm{{-}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}\mathrm{{-}R}1.3–1.4
−CHR2\mathrm{{-}C}\mathbf{H}\mathrm{R_{2}}1.5
RO−C(=O)−CH2−\mathrm{RO{-}C({=}O){-}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}\mathrm{{-}}2.0–2.5
R−C(=O)−CH2−\mathrm{R{-}C({=}O){-}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}\mathrm{{-}}2.2–2.7
−C6H4−CH3\mathrm{{-}C_{6}H_{4}{-}C}\mathbf{H}_{3}2.5–3.5
−C≡C−H\mathrm{{-}C{\equiv}C{-}}\mathbf{H}1.8–3.1
−CH2−Hal\mathrm{{-}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}\mathrm{{-}Hal}3.5–4.4
R−O−CH2−\mathrm{R{-}O{-}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}\mathrm{{-}}3.3–3.7
R−C(=O)−O−CH2−\mathrm{R{-}C({=}O){-}O{-}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}\mathrm{{-}}3.7–4.8
R−C(=O)−O−H\mathrm{R{-}C({=}O){-}O{-}}\mathbf{H}9.0–13.0
R−O−H\mathrm{R{-}O{-}}\mathbf{H}1.0–6.0
−CH=CH2\mathrm{{-}CH{=}C}\mathbf{H}_{2}4.5–6.0
−C6H4−OH\mathrm{{-}C_{6}H_{4}{-}O}\mathbf{H}4.0–12.0
−C6H4−H\mathrm{{-}C_{6}H_{4}{-}}\mathbf{H}6.9–9.0
R−C(=O)−H\mathrm{R{-}C({=}O){-}}\mathbf{H}9.4–10.0

22Mass spectral fragments lost

Mass lost (MrM_{\mathrm{r}})Possible neutral fragment lost
15∙CHX3\bullet\ce{CH3}
17∙OH\bullet\ce{OH}
18HX2O\ce{H2O}
28CHX2=CHX2CO\ce{CH2=CH2}\qquad\ce{CO}
29∙CHX2CHX3∙CHO\bullet\ce{CH2CH3}\qquad\bullet\ce{CHO}
31∙OCHX3\bullet\ce{OCH3}
45∙COOH\bullet\ce{COOH}

23Uncertainties

If: y=a±by = a \pm b
then:
Δy=Δa+Δb\Delta y = \Delta a + \Delta b
If: y=abcy = \dfrac{ab}{c}
then:
Δyy=Δaa+Δbb+Δcc\dfrac{\Delta y}{y} = \dfrac{\Delta a}{a} + \dfrac{\Delta b}{b} + \dfrac{\Delta c}{c}
If: y=any = a^{n}
then:
Δyy=∣nΔaa∣\dfrac{\Delta y}{y} = \left|n\dfrac{\Delta a}{a}\right|

Questions

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